{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T19:33:43Z","timestamp":1791920023168,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":186,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676419200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Saudi Ministry of Higher Education"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rising burden of antimicrobial resistance and increasing infectious disease outbreaks, including the recent COVID-19 pandemic, has led to a growing demand for the development of natural products as a valuable source of leading medicinal compounds. There is a wide variety of active constituents found in plants, making them an excellent source of antimicrobial agents with therapeutic potential as alternatives or potentiators of antibiotics. The structural diversity of phytochemicals enables them to act through a variety of mechanisms, targeting multiple biochemical pathways, in contrast to traditional antimicrobials. Moreover, the bioactivity of the herbal extracts can be explained by various metabolites working in synergism, where hundreds to thousands of metabolites make up the extract. Although a vast amount of literature is available regarding the use of these herbal extracts against bacterial and viral infections, critical assessments of their quality are lacking. This review aims to explore the efficacy and antimicrobial effects of herbal extracts against clinically relevant gastrointestinal infections including pathogenic Escherichia coli, toxigenic Clostridioides difficile, Campylobacter and Salmonella species. The review will discuss research gaps and propose future approaches to the translational development of plant-derived products for drug discovery purposes for the treatment and prevention of gastrointestinal infectious diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T02:04:03Z","timestamp":1676513043000},"page":"333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Plant-Derived Products with Therapeutic Potential against Gastrointestinal Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9260-2882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatimah I.","family":"Qassadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2135-3812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zheying","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7622-3997","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanya M.","family":"Monaghan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp031534","article-title":"Acute infectious diarrhea","volume":"350","author":"Thielman","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.022103","article-title":"Management of infectious diarrhoea","volume":"53","author":"Farthing","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1586\/14737159.2016.1167599","article-title":"Advanced PCR-based molecular diagnosis of gastrointestinal infections: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"16","author":"Zboromyrska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"WHO (2022, December 05). Diarrhoeal Disease. Key Facts. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/diarrhoeal-disease."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischer Walker, C.L., Sack, D., and Black, R.E. (2010). Etiology of diarrhea in older children, adolescents and adults: A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000768"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.02.009","article-title":"Breakthroughs in bacterial resistance mechanisms and the potential ways to combat them","volume":"95","author":"Khameneh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1086\/420937","article-title":"Trends in Antimicrobial Drug Development: Implications for the Future","volume":"38","author":"Spellberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525340","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/525340","article-title":"Historical perspective of traditional indigenous medical practices: The current renaissance and conservation of herbal resources","volume":"2014","author":"Pan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376327","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/376327","article-title":"Indian Traditional Ayurvedic System of Medicine and Nutritional Supplementation","volume":"2013","author":"Pandey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Philip, F.B. (2019). Herbal. Medicine, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.078089","article-title":"Complementary and alternative medicine for functional gastrointestinal disorders","volume":"55","author":"Tillisch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"932","article-title":"Antimicrobial plant metabolites: Structural diversity and mechanism of action","volume":"20","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlSheikh, H.M.A., Sultan, I., Kumar, V., Rather, I.A., Al-Sheikh, H., Tasleem Jan, A., and Haq, Q.M.R. (2020). Plant-Based Phytochemicals as Possible Alternative to Antibiotics in Combating Bacterial Drug Resistance. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9080480"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"57","article-title":"Developing New Antimicrobial Therapies: Are Synergistic Combinations of Plant Extracts\/Compounds with Conventional Antibiotics the Solution?","volume":"11","author":"Cheesman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharm. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3495","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c00922","article-title":"Ethnobotany and the Role of Plant Natural Products in Antibiotic Drug Discovery","volume":"121","author":"Porras","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaou, N., Stavropoulou, E., Voidarou, C., Tsigalou, C., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2021). Towards Advances in Medicinal Plant Antimicrobial Activity: A Review Study on Challenges and Future Perspectives. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102041"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.4.1561-1568.2002","article-title":"The phenolic hydroxyl group of carvacrol is essential for action against the food-borne pathogen Bacillus cereus","volume":"68","author":"Ultee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Env. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2006.01938.x","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of carvacrol related to its chemical structure","volume":"43","author":"Combes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2001.01428.x","article-title":"A study of the minimum inhibitory concentration and mode of action of oregano essential oil, thymol and carvacrol","volume":"91","author":"Lambert","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2011.03.035","article-title":"Identification of a new antinociceptive alkaloid isopropyl N-methylanthranilate from the essential oil of Choisya ternata Kunth","volume":"135","author":"McDermott","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.2174\/1573406413666171020120528","article-title":"Anthranilic Acid Derivatives: Novel Inhibitors of Protein Glycation and the Associated Oxidative Stress in the Hepatocytes","volume":"14","author":"Jahan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"24","article-title":"Study of Anthranylic Acid Derivatives: Mefenamic Acid and Its Various Analogues","volume":"2","author":"Asif","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Stud."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2021.153626","article-title":"Antibacterial plant compounds, extracts and essential oils: An updated review on their effects and putative mechanisms of action","volume":"90","author":"Micol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorlenko, C.L., Kiselev, H.Y., Budanova, E.V., Zamyatnin, A.A., and Ikryannikova, L.N. (2020). Plant Secondary Metabolites in the Battle of Drugs and Drug-Resistant Bacteria: New Heroes or Worse Clones of Antibiotics?. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9040170"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranfaing, J., Dunyach-Remy, C., Lavigne, J.-P., and Sotto, A. (2018). Propolis potentiates the effect of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) in reducing the motility and the biofilm formation of uropathogenic Escherichia coli. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0202609"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix669","article-title":"2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Infectious Diarrhea","volume":"65","author":"Shane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8390","DOI":"10.1021\/jf071460f","article-title":"Ginger and its bioactive component inhibit enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea in mice","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4165(99)00102-6","article-title":"Epigallocatechin gallate and gallocatechin gallate in green tea catechins inhibit extracellular release of Vero toxin from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7","volume":"1472","author":"Amano","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2020.105424","article-title":"An insight into the therapeutic applications of coumarin compounds and their mechanisms of action","volume":"152","author":"Garg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2009.04.004","article-title":"Inhibition of ATPase activity of Escherichia coli ATP synthase by polyphenols","volume":"45","author":"Dadi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1139\/m69-190","article-title":"Berberine sulfate: Antimicrobial activity, bioassay, and mode of action","volume":"15","author":"Amin","year":"1969","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.35.2.471-475.1982","article-title":"Berberine inhibits intestinal secretory response of Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli enterotoxins","volume":"35","author":"Sack","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-16-104","article-title":"Efficacy of Plant-Derived Antimicrobials in Controlling Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Virulence In Vitro","volume":"79","author":"Baskaran","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food. Prot."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4415","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms15034415","article-title":"Carvacrol and trans-cinnamaldehyde reduce Clostridium difficile toxin production and cytotoxicity in vitro","volume":"15","author":"Mooyottu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2014-0262","article-title":"Protective effects of baicalin on LPS-induced injury in intestinal epithelial cells and intercellular tight junctions","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7054","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01416-15","article-title":"Baicalin inhibits the lethality of Shiga-like toxin 2 in mice","volume":"59","author":"Dong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1211\/0022357001773922","article-title":"Baicalin synergy with beta-lactam antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other beta-lactam-resistant strains of S. aureus","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"395","article-title":"Baicalin Protects Mice from Lethal Infection by Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.000009","article-title":"Essential oils have different effects on human pathogenic and commensal bacteria in mixed faecal fermentations compared with pure cultures","volume":"161","author":"Thapa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, U.A., Rahman, H., Qasim, M., Hussain, A., Azizllah, A., Murad, W., Khan, Z., Anees, M., and Adnan, M. (2015). Alkanna tinctoria leaves extracts: A prospective remedy against multidrug resistant human pathogenic bacteria. BMC. Complement. Altern. Med., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-015-0646-z"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"65","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of matrine and oxymatrine on pathogenic bacteria causing cow endometritis in vitro","volume":"38","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50216-x","article-title":"Various modes of action of dietary phytochemicals, sulforaphane and phenethyl isothiocyanate, on pathogenic bacteria","volume":"9","author":"Nowicki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209309082942","article-title":"Antisecretory (Antidiarrhoeal) Activity of Indian Medicinal Plants against Escherichia Coli Enterotoxin-Induced Secretion in Rabbit and Guinea Pig Ileal Loop Models","volume":"31","author":"Gupta","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharmacogn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira da Cruz, R., Sampaio de Freitas, T., Socorro Costa, M.D., Lucas Dos Santos, A.T., Ferreira Campina, F., Pereira, R.L.S., Bezerra, J.W.A., Quintans-J\u00fanior, L.J., De Souza Ara\u00fajo, A.A., and J\u00fanior, J.P.S. (2020). Effect of \u03b1-Bisabolol and Its \u03b2-Cyclodextrin Complex as TetK and NorA Efflux Pump Inhibitors in Staphylococcus aureus Strains. Antibiot, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9010028"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro818","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"2","author":"Kaper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1104.040739","article-title":"Epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157: H7 outbreaks, united states, 1982\u20132002","volume":"11","author":"Rangel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.08.036","article-title":"Anti-diarrheal effect of Galla Chinensis on the Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin and ganglioside interaction","volume":"103","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.07.062","article-title":"Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of consecutive extracts from Galla chinensis: The polarity affects the bioactivities","volume":"113","author":"Tian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.1998.00363.x","article-title":"Growth-inhibitory effects of Galla Rhois-derived tannins on intestinal bacteria","volume":"84","author":"Ahn","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, X., Yang, Y., Li, J., He, M., Zou, Y., Jia, R., Li, L., Hang, J., Cui, M., and Bai, L. (2021). Tannins extract from Galla Chinensis can protect mice from infection by Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli O101. BMC. Complement. Med. Ther., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-021-03261-x"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(02)01366-7","article-title":"The relationship between the antioxidant and the antibacterial properties of galloylated catechins and the structure of phospholipid model membranes","volume":"34","author":"Caturla","year":"2003","journal-title":"Free. Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.200600173","article-title":"Overview of antibacterial, antitoxin, antiviral, and antifungal activities of tea flavonoids and teas","volume":"51","author":"Friedman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci2018.05.0323","article-title":"Activity, purification, and analysis of condensed tannins: Current state of affairs and future endeavors","volume":"59","author":"Zeller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crop. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2012.03.051","article-title":"Antioxidant, antimicrobial and antiverotoxic potentials of extracts of Curtisia dentata","volume":"141","author":"Doughari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khameneh, B., Eskin, N.A.M., Iranshahy, M., and Fazly Bazzaz, B.S. (2021). Phytochemicals: A Promising Weapon in the Arsenal against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10091044"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-005-0045-z","article-title":"Reduction of Escherichia coli adherence to uroepithelial bladder cells after consumption of cranberry juice: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled cross-over trial","volume":"24","author":"Agniel","year":"2006","journal-title":"World J. Urolog."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2017.1371591","article-title":"Phytotherapy as an alternative to conventional antimicrobials: Combating microbial resistance","volume":"10","author":"Enioutina","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petronio Petronio, G., Cutuli, M.A., Magnifico, I., Venditti, N., Pietrangelo, L., Vergalito, F., Pane, A., Scapagnini, G., and Di Marco, R. (2020). In Vitro and In Vivo Biological Activity of Berberine Chloride against Uropathogenic, E. coli Strains Using Galleria mellonella as a Host Model. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25215010"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-021-11116-1","article-title":"Targeting effect of berberine on type I fimbriae of Salmonella Typhimurium and its effective inhibition of biofilm","volume":"105","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3225","DOI":"10.1021\/bi7018546","article-title":"Berberine targets assembly of Escherichia coli cell division protein FtsZ","volume":"47","author":"Domadia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boberek, J.M., Stach, J., and Good, L. (2010). Genetic evidence for inhibition of bacterial division protein FtsZ by berberine. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013745"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"27","article-title":"J. Antibacterial Mechanisms of Berberine and Reasons for Little Resistance of Bacteria","volume":"3","author":"Jin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. Herb. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.030540597","article-title":"Synergy in a medicinal plant: Antimicrobial action of berberine potentiated by 5\u2032-methoxyhydnocarpin, a multidrug pump inhibitor","volume":"97","author":"Stermitz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"467","article-title":"Berberine inhibits the MexXY-OprM efflux pump to reverse imipenem resistance in a clinical carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate in a planktonic state","volume":"15","author":"Su","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2584","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02584","article-title":"Inhibitory Effect of Two Traditional Chinese Medicine Monomers, Berberine and Matrine, on the Quorum Sensing System of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shilei, Z., Ze, J., Xianghe, Z., Chunguang, W., and Tie, Z. (2018). The Effect of Berberine on the Transcriptome and Proteome of E. coli. bioRxiv, 318733.","DOI":"10.1101\/318733"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3162","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00502-16","article-title":"Transcriptional Responses of Escherichia coli to a Small-Molecule Inhibitor of LolCDE, an Essential Component of the Lipoprotein Transport Pathway","volume":"198","author":"Lorenz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19042","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.19042","article-title":"Defining key roles for auxiliary proteins in an ABC transporter that maintains bacterial outer membrane lipid asymmetry","volume":"5","author":"Thong","year":"2016","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6770","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.187.19.6770-6778.2005","article-title":"Role of RcsF in signaling to the Rcs phosphorelay pathway in Escherichia coli","volume":"187","author":"Majdalani","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18689","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M412277200","article-title":"Identification of Multiple Genes Encoding Membrane Proteins with Undecaprenyl Pyrophosphate Phosphatase (UppP) Activity in Escherichia coli*","volume":"280","author":"Ghachi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5750","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.10.5750-5755.2004","article-title":"Mechanisms of bactericidal action of cinnamaldehyde against Listeria monocytogenes and of eugenol against L. monocytogenes and Lactobacillus sakei","volume":"70","author":"Gill","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Env. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5350","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00341-10","article-title":"Integration of metabolism and virulence by Clostridium difficile CodY","volume":"192","author":"Dineen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00625","article-title":"Protective Effect of Carvacrol against Gut Dysbiosis and Clostridium difficile Associated Disease in a Mouse Model","volume":"8","author":"Mooyottu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13486","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of natural products against Clostridium difficile in vitro","volume":"123","author":"Roshan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15735","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-33954-2","article-title":"Effect of natural products on the production and activity of Clostridium difficile toxins in vitro","volume":"8","author":"Roshan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3726","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.04794-14","article-title":"Berberine blocks the relapse of Clostridium difficile infection in C57BL\/6 mice after standard vancomycin treatment","volume":"59","author":"Lv","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pal, R., and Seleem, M.N. (2022). Discovery of a novel natural product inhibitor of Clostridioides difficile with potent activity in vitro and in vivo. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0267859"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-90314-3","article-title":"High-throughput screening identifies a novel natural product-inspired scaffold capable of inhibiting Clostridioides difficile in vitro","volume":"11","author":"Pal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2012.0303","article-title":"Antimicrobial effects of virgin coconut oil and its medium-chain fatty acids on Clostridium difficile","volume":"16","author":"Shilling","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Food."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2013.0012","article-title":"Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Angelica archangelica L.(Apiaceae) roots","volume":"17","author":"Fraternale","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Food."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2014.02.029","article-title":"Pomegranate extract exhibits in vitro activity against Clostridium difficile","volume":"30","author":"Finegold","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6316","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.10.6316-6320.2003","article-title":"Comparison of Campylobacter isolates from poultry and humans: Association between in vitro virulence properties, biotypes, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis clusters","volume":"69","author":"Nadeau","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.28.6.1314-1320.1990","article-title":"Isolation, characterization, and host-cell-binding properties of a cytotoxin from Campylobacter jejuni","volume":"28","author":"Mahajan","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-73.3.477","article-title":"Reduction of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in poultry skin by fruit extracts","volume":"73","author":"Heredia","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food. Prot."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M421","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2011.02229.x","article-title":"Extracts of Edible and Medicinal Plants in Inhibition of Growth, Adherence, and Cytotoxin Production of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli","volume":"76","author":"Castillo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Food. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.3412\/jsb.44.669","article-title":"Antibacterial and bactericidal activities of Japanese green tea","volume":"44","author":"Toda","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nihon. Saikingaku. Zasshi. Jpn. J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1097\/MRM.0b013e328303ba7d","article-title":"The virulence determinants of Campylobacter jejuni and its ability to colonize hosts","volume":"19","author":"Zhu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2006.11.017","article-title":"Okra polysaccharides inhibit adhesion of Campylobacter jejuni to mucosa isolated from poultry in vitro but not in vivo","volume":"135","author":"Lengsfeld","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"1093","article-title":"Review: Therapeutic potential of plants asanti-microbials for drug discovery","volume":"10","author":"Samy","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Evid. -Based Compl. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2006.11.004","article-title":"Herbal medicine in the treatment of liver diseases","volume":"39","author":"Stickel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dig. Liver. Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"CDC (2022, December 11). Diarrhea: Common Illness, Global Killer, Available online: https:\/\/stacks.cdc.gov\/view\/cdc\/13557."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Groombridge, B., and Jenkins, M. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth\u2019s Living Resources in the 21st Century, University of California Press."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"WHO (2004). WHO Guidelines on Safety Monitoring of Herbal Medicines in Pharmacovigilance Systems."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Silva, M., Bittner, M., Mueller, M.S., and Mechler, E. (2005). Medicinal Plants in Tropical Countries, Traditional Use\u2014Experience\u2014Facts, Georg Thieme Verlag."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.1907","article-title":"Phytochemicals from traditional medicinal plants used in the treatment of diarrhoea: Modes of action and effects on intestinal function","volume":"20","author":"Palombo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.112561","article-title":"The antidiarrhoeal evaluation of Psidium guajava L. against enteropathogenic Escherichia coli induced infectious diarrhoea","volume":"251","author":"Hirudkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2008.01.025","article-title":"Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology","volume":"117","author":"Mitchell","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-959694","article-title":"Antidiarrhoeic activity of Euphorbia hirta extract and isolation of an active flavonoid constituent","volume":"59","author":"Galvez","year":"1993","journal-title":"Planta. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.4103\/0975-9476.146557","article-title":"Psidium guajava leaf extract prevents intestinal colonization of Citrobacter rodentium in the mouse model","volume":"6","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ayurveda Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v16i2.33","article-title":"Intestinal ameliorative effects of traditional Ogi-tutu, Vernonia amygdalina and Psidium guajava in mice infected with Vibrio cholera","volume":"16","author":"Shittu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. Health. Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-8741(02)00185-X","article-title":"Intestinal anti-spasmodic effect of a phytodrug of Psidium guajava folia in the treatment of acute diarrheic disease","volume":"83","author":"Lozoya","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8306986","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8306986","article-title":"Evaluation of Acute and Subacute Toxicities of Psidium guajava Methanolic Bark Extract: A Botanical with In Vitro Antiproliferative Potential","volume":"2019","author":"Manekeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02749333","article-title":"A combination of sulfadimidine, neomycin and berberine in the treatment of infectious diarrhoea","volume":"36","author":"Chauhan","year":"1969","journal-title":"Indian. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02803833","article-title":"Berberine in the treatment of childhood diarrhoea","volume":"37","author":"Chauhan","year":"1970","journal-title":"Indian. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"22","article-title":"Berberine in the treatment of diarrhoea of infancy and childhood","volume":"54","author":"Sharda","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Indian. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"496","article-title":"Berberine tannate in acute diarrhoea","volume":"7","author":"Sharma","year":"1970","journal-title":"Indian. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.5.979","article-title":"Randomized controlled trial of berberine sulfate therapy for diarrhea due to enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae","volume":"155","author":"Rabbani","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1254\/fpj.101.3_169","article-title":"[Pharmacological studies on antidiarrheal effects of a preparation containing berberine and geranii herba]","volume":"101","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"116","article-title":"Pharmacological effects of berberine on the longitudinal muscle of the guinea-pig isolated ileum","volume":"310","author":"Tsai","year":"1991","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2012.05.015","article-title":"Berberine increases the expression of NHE3 and AQP4 in sennosideA-induced diarrhoea model","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02818693","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of berberine--A constituent of Mahonia aquifolium","volume":"47","year":"2002","journal-title":"Folia. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-014-2132-9","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhea in a university hospital in China","volume":"33","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"69","article-title":"Meta-analysis of antibiotic-associated diarrhea treated by traditional Chinese medicine","volume":"17","author":"He","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. J. TCM. WM. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"373","article-title":"The influences of Chinese herbal compounds on in vitro expression of toxic genes tcd A\/tcd B of Clostridium difficile","volume":"25","author":"Shu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chin. J. Microecol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2018.00021","article-title":"Toxicological Effects of Berberine and Sanguinarine","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"516","article-title":"Toxicology effects of Berberis vulgaris (barberry) and its active constituent, berberine: A review","volume":"20","author":"Rad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Iran. J. Basic. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3104","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.762654","article-title":"Berberine: A Review of its Pharmacokinetics Properties and Therapeutic Potentials in Diverse Vascular Diseases","volume":"12","author":"Ai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026620666201022144405","article-title":"Berberine in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: A Review","volume":"21","author":"Baska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Metab. Immune. Disord. Drug Targets."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2013.00177","article-title":"The growing use of herbal medicines: Issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety","volume":"4","author":"Ekor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/157.5.1008","article-title":"Travelers\u2019 diarrhea in West Africa and Mexico: Fecal transport systems and liquid bismuth subsalicylate for self-therapy","volume":"157","author":"Steffen","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15s","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(90)90270-N","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of loperamide hydrochloride and bismuth subsalicylate in the management of acute diarrhea","volume":"88","author":"DuPont","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199306103282301","article-title":"A controlled trial of bismuth subsalicylate in infants with acute watery diarrheal disease","volume":"328","author":"Sack","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1008336","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of bismuth subsalicylate on Clostridium difficile, Escherichia coli O157:H7, norovirus, and other common enteric pathogens","volume":"6","author":"Pitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut Microbes."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1080\/080352501750258630","article-title":"The efficacy of bismuth subsalicylate in the treatment of acute diarrhoea and the prevention of persistent diarrhoea","volume":"90","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e236929","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2020-236929","article-title":"Salicylate toxicity from chronic bismuth subsalicylate use","volume":"13","author":"Halani","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2020.104647","article-title":"Regulatory landscape of dietary supplements and herbal medicines from a global perspective","volume":"114","author":"Thakkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alibi, S., Crespo, D., and Navas, J. (2021). Plant-Derivatives Small Molecules with Antibacterial Activity. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10030231"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2016.04.002","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of Ayurvedic herbs in diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome: A randomised controlled crossover trial","volume":"26","author":"Lauche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2006.00576.x","article-title":"Treatment of Diarrhea-Predominant Irritable Bowel Syndrome with Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"101","author":"Leung","year":"2006","journal-title":"Off. J. Am. Coll. Gastroenterol. ACG."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"68","article-title":"A baobab solution for the prevention and treatment of acute dehydration in infantile diarrhea","volume":"42","author":"Toure","year":"1997","journal-title":"Dakar. Med."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.291.6509.1601","article-title":"Clinical trial of berberine in acute watery diarrhoea","volume":"291","author":"Myo","year":"1985","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopen.2017.12.003","article-title":"Herbal genomics as tools for dissecting new metabolic pathways of unexplored medicinal plants and drug discovery","volume":"6","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Open."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-021-01197-1","article-title":"Mass spectrometry-based metabolomics: A guide for annotation, quantification and best reporting practices","volume":"18","author":"Alseekh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Methods."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"173","article-title":"Metabolomics in the context of systems biology: Bridging traditional Chinese medicine and molecular pharmacology","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phytother. Res. Int. J. Devoted. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Eval. Nat. Prod. Deriv."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1039\/C6NP00035E","article-title":"Computational genomic identification and functional reconstitution of plant natural product biosynthetic pathways","volume":"33","author":"Medema","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2004.03.007","article-title":"Metabolomics by numbers: Acquiring and understanding global metabolite data","volume":"22","author":"Goodacre","year":"2004","journal-title":"TRENDS Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6656","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-34537-6","article-title":"Metabolite annotation from knowns to unknowns through knowledge-guided multi-layer metabolic networking","volume":"13","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2007.02.018","article-title":"Evaluation of the antimicrobial mode of berberine by LC\/ESI-MS combined with principal component analysis","volume":"44","author":"Yi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2016.0063","article-title":"Response of Escherichia coli to prolonged berberine exposure","volume":"23","author":"Avci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Drug. Resist."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1089\/omi.2013.0100","article-title":"Assessment of berberine as a multi-target antimicrobial: A multi-omics study for drug discovery and repositioning","volume":"18","author":"Karaosmanoglu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Omics. A. J. Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1007\/s13213-010-0118-0","article-title":"Proteomic response of Escherichia coli to the alkaloid extract of Papaver polychaetum","volume":"60","author":"Ozbalci","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2007.01.032","article-title":"Validate antibacterial mode and find main bioactive components of traditional Chinese medicine Aquilegia oxysepala","volume":"17","author":"Yu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandita, D., Pandita, A., Wani, S.H., Abdelmohsen, S.A.M., Alyousef, H.A., Abdelbacki, A.M.M., Al-Yafrasi, M.A., Al-Mana, F.A., and Elansary, H.O. (2021). Crosstalk of Multi-Omics Platforms with Plants of Therapeutic Importance. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061296"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.57.765","article-title":"Naturally Occurring Iridoids, Secoiridoids and Their Bioactivity. An Updated Review, Part 3","volume":"57","author":"Dinda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11692","article-title":"An alternative route to cyclic terpenes by reductive cyclization in iridoid biosynthesis","volume":"492","author":"Sherden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16751","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.225383","article-title":"A stereoselective hydroxylation step of alkaloid biosynthesis by a unique cytochrome P450 in Catharanthus roseus","volume":"286","author":"Giddings","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.2174\/138955708783955926","article-title":"Biological and pharmacological activities of iridoids: Recent developments","volume":"8","author":"Tundis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mini. Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2014.05.022","article-title":"Application of proteomics to determine the mechanism of action of traditional Chinese medicine remedies","volume":"155","author":"Lao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539260","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/539260","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of anticancer TCMs targeted at mitochondria","volume":"2015","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052054","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/768\/5\/052054","article-title":"Proteomic profiling of salmonella under berberine stress","volume":"768","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP. Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E2100","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1401876111","article-title":"Antibiotics induce redox-related physiological alterations as part of their lethality","volume":"111","author":"Dwyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2012.04.027","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced bacterial cell death exhibits physiological and biochemical hallmarks of apoptosis","volume":"46","author":"Dwyer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.05.009","article-title":"Microbial persistence and the road to drug resistance","volume":"13","author":"Cohen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell. Host. Microbe."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.02.001","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial tolerance and resistance in bacterial and fungal biofilms","volume":"22","author":"Coenye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-008-0632-y","article-title":"Herbal medicine in the United States: Review of efficacy, safety, and regulation: Grand rounds at University of California, San Francisco Medical Center","volume":"23","author":"Bent","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s13002-015-0011-9","article-title":"Ethnomedicinal plants used for digestive system disorders by the Karen of northern Thailand","volume":"11","author":"Tangjitman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683726","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/683726","article-title":"Antidiarrhoeal Activity of Musa paradisiaca Sap in Wistar Rats","volume":"2015","author":"Yakubu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Evid. Based. Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"478","article-title":"Toxicological profile of the aqueous-fermented extract of Musa paradisiaca in rats","volume":"8","author":"Ugbogu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Avicenna. J. Phytomed."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e06222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e06222","article-title":"Traditional uses and pharmacological activities of the genus leea and its phytochemicals: A review","volume":"7","author":"Hossain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.4103\/2348-0149.135732","article-title":"Hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic extract of Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr.(Leeaceae) stem bark against paracetamol induced liver toxicity in rats","volume":"2","author":"Mishra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Niger. J. Exp. Clin. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_161","first-page":"353","article-title":"Studies on Acorus calamus (III): Some pharmacological actions of the volatile oil","volume":"125","author":"Dandiya","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, V., Sharma, R., Gautam, D.S., Kuca, K., Nepovimova, E., and Martins, N. (2020). Role of Vacha (Acorus calamus Linn.) in Neurological and Metabolic Disorders: Evidence from Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Study. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9041176"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oli, A.N., Obaji, M., and Enweani, I.B. (2019). Combinations of Alchornea cordifolia, Cassytha filiformis and Pterocarpus santalinoides in diarrhoegenic bacterial infections. BMC. Res. Notes, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4687-0"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.11.034","article-title":"Medicinal plants: An important asset to health care in a region of Central Laos","volume":"106","author":"Libman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.807","article-title":"Ginger in gastrointestinal disorders: A systematic review of clinical trials","volume":"7","author":"Maleki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food. Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6238(00)00116-7","article-title":"Investigation of the teratogenic potential of a Zingiber officinale extract in the rat","volume":"15","author":"Weidner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"17","article-title":"Chronic toxicity of Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl. extract","volume":"7","author":"Chivapat","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Tradit. Thai. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6025900","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/6025900","article-title":"A Review of Recent Studies on the Antioxidant and Anti-Infectious Properties of Senna Plants","volume":"2022","author":"Alshehri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1078\/0344-0338-00489","article-title":"Effects of long-term administration of Senna occidentalis seeds in the large bowel of rats","volume":"199","author":"Nadal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pathol. -Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2580259","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/2580259","article-title":"Ethnobotanical Description and Biological Activities of Senna alata","volume":"2020","author":"Oladeji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2009.05.008","article-title":"Senna alata","volume":"80","author":"Hennebelle","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, M.Z., Mehmood, M.H., Saleem, M., and Gilani, A.H. (2020). The use of Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) in diarrhea and constipation involves calcium antagonism and cholinergic mechanisms. BMC. Complement. Med., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-019-2793-0"},{"key":"ref_173","first-page":"53","article-title":"Toxic effects of some plants in the genus Euphorbia on haematological and biochemical parameters of rats","volume":"74","author":"Adedapo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Arh."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.03.035","article-title":"Anti-gastric ulcer effect of Kaempferia parviflora","volume":"102","author":"Rujjanawate","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"210","article-title":"Effect of Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex. Baker on sexual activity of male rats and its toxicity","volume":"37 Suppl. 3","author":"Sudwan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Southeast. Asian. J. Trop. Med. Public. Health."},{"key":"ref_176","first-page":"355","article-title":"Evaluation of Flemingia macrophylla L., a traditionally used plant of the north eastern region of India for hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic effect on mice","volume":"2","author":"Syiem","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacologyonline"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1080\/19390211.2017.1349231","article-title":"Gastroprotective and Antiulcer Effects of Celastrus paniculatus Seed Oil Against Several Gastric Ulcer Models in Rats","volume":"15","author":"Palle","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Diet. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2009.02.003","article-title":"Potent relaxant effect of a Celastrus paniculatus extract in the rat and human ileum","volume":"122","author":"Borrelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-8741(95)01264-E","article-title":"Effects of Celastrus paniculatus on passive avoidance performance and biogenic amine turnover in albino rats","volume":"47","author":"Nalini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_180","unstructured":"FDA (2022, December 05). Complementary and Alternative Medicine Products and their Regulation by the Food and Drug Administration, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information."},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"EMA (2022, December 10). The Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC). Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/committees\/committee-herbal-medicinal-products-hmpc."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gajic, I., Kabic, J., Kekic, D., Jovicevic, M., Milenkovic, M., Mitic Culafic, D., Trudic, A., Ranin, L., and Opavski, N. (2022). Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: A Comprehensive Review of Currently Used Methods. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040427"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2018.07.002","article-title":"Evaluation of in vitro growth-inhibitory effect of carvacrol and thymol combination against Staphylococcus aureus in liquid and vapour phase using new broth volatilization chequerboard method","volume":"129","author":"Netopilova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1039\/c2np20035j","article-title":"Plants as sources of new antimicrobials and resistance-modifying agents","volume":"29","author":"Abreu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/0735-260291044269","article-title":"Secondary Metabolites as Plant Traits: Current Assessment and Future Perspectives","volume":"21","author":"Hadacek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Plant. Sci."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001","article-title":"Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review","volume":"33","author":"Atanasov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/333\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:37:10Z","timestamp":1760121430000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/333"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"references-count":186,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12020333"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12020333","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]}}}