{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T19:54:44Z","timestamp":1789588484778,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, and microsporidia are gastrointestinal pathogens that can cause various disease symptoms in both animals and humans. Numerous studies worldwide have confirmed the presence of these eukaryotic pathogens in nesting and migrating wild geese, ducks, and swans. Migration spreads these zoonotic enteric pathogens to distant locations, which could have public health implications. Soils and water bodies (lakes, ponds, rivers and wetlands) in urban and suburban areas have been shown to be vulnerable to contamination by waterfowl droppings. This review addresses the epidemiology of these enteric pathogens in wild migratory bird species (Anatidae) and some consequences of their spread in the environment. To date, both zoonotic pathogens and genotypes restricted to avian hosts have been found in faecal samples from 21 anatid species worldwide. One of the routes of infection for these zoonotic gastrointestinal micropathogens is the indirect route. For example, shared water bodies (e.g., for drinking or recreational purposes) previously contaminated by birds during the migratory season may facilitate infections of humans through water. However, it is unclear how much wild waterfowl contribute to the transmission of giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporosis, and microsporidiosis in many regions through contaminated environmental sources. Comprehensive epidemiological surveillance based on molecular data on gastrointestinal pathogens is crucial to take measures to control infections in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12030487","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T04:05:23Z","timestamp":1679285123000},"page":"487","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Migrating Anatidae as Sources of Environmental Contamination with Zoonotic Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora and Microsporidia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Piotr","family":"Solarczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 10 Fredry Street, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Wojtkowiak-Giera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 10 Fredry Street, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4536-5508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike","family":"Heddergott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Mus\u00e9e National d\u2019Historire Naturelle, 25, Rue M\u00fcnster, 2160 Luxembourg, Luxembourg"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2012). Research Priorities for Zoonoses and Marginalized Infections, WHO. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/75350\/WHO_TRS_971_eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06536","article-title":"Global trends in emerging infectious diseases","volume":"451","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05038-11","article-title":"Enteric protozoa in the developed world: A public health perspective","volume":"25","author":"Fletcher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2013.06.001","article-title":"Zoonotic potential of Giardia","volume":"43","author":"Ryan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2007.11.001","article-title":"Human infections associated with wild birds","volume":"56","author":"Tsiodras","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1300450","article-title":"Potential disease transmission from wild geese and swans to livestock, poultry and humans: A review of the scientific literature from a One Health perspective","volume":"10","author":"Elmberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-40.4.639","article-title":"An annotated checklist of pathogenic microorganisms associated with migratory birds","volume":"40","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1080\/10473220121164","article-title":"Risk of Occupational Exposure to Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Campylobacter Associated with the Feces of Giant Canada Geese","volume":"16","author":"Kassa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00033-10","article-title":"Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis","volume":"24","author":"Feng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.01.036","article-title":"Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: Review of worldwide outbreaks\u2014An update 2011\u20132016","volume":"114","author":"Efstratiou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-07023-5","article-title":"Wastewater-based epidemiology-surveillance and early detection of waterborne pathogens with a focus on SARS-CoV-2, Cryptosporidium and Giardia","volume":"120","author":"Zahedi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"11S","article-title":"Environmental resistance of Encephalitozoon spores","volume":"46","author":"Carr","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.41.2.483-487.1981","article-title":"Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cyst viability","volume":"41","author":"Jarroll","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2020.515","article-title":"A review of Cryptosporidium spp. and their detection in water","volume":"83","author":"Hassan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e49","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268821000200","article-title":"A scoping review of the detection, epidemiology and control of Cyclospora cayetanensis with an emphasis on produce, water and soil","volume":"149","author":"Totton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3884-y","article-title":"First detection of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus) in China","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, U., Zahedi, A., Feng, Y., and Xiao, L. (2021). An Update on Zoonotic Cryptosporidium Species and Genotypes in Humans. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11113307"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/19.3.517","article-title":"Microsporidial infections in immunodeficient and immunocompetent patients","volume":"19","author":"Weber","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2007.03.024","article-title":"Prevalence of Cryptosporidium species in wildlife populations within a watershed landscape in southeastern New York State","volume":"147","author":"Ziegler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04700-x","article-title":"The largest meta-analysis on the global prevalence of microsporidia in mammals, avian and water provides insights into the epidemic features of these ubiquitous pathogens","volume":"14","author":"Ruan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00026-09","article-title":"Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a food-borne and waterborne parasite","volume":"23","author":"Ortega","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2020047","article-title":"Update on Giardia: Highlights from the seventh International Giardia and Cryptosporidium Conference","volume":"27","author":"Buret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3997-3","article-title":"Molecular typing of Cyclospora cayetanensis in produce and clinical samples using targeted enrichment of complete mitochondrial genomes and next-generation sequencing","volume":"13","author":"Cinar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.1.1.5","article-title":"Birds, migration and emerging zoonoses: West nile virus, lyme disease, influenza A and enteropathogens","volume":"1","author":"Reed","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"190","article-title":"The current status of wintering population of whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) at Sanmenxia reservoir region, China","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12897","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2000299117","article-title":"Migratory behavior and winter geography drive differential range shifts of eastern birds in response to recent climate change","volume":"117","author":"Rushing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8617","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.8617","article-title":"Effects of weather variation on waterfowl migration: Lessons from a continental-scale generalizable avian movement and energetics model","volume":"12","author":"Aagaard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1080\/25761900.2022.12220647","article-title":"Zoonotic diseases: Health aspects of Canadian geese","volume":"60","author":"Dieter","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Circumpolar Health"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"34","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis: A brief literature review and update regarding Cryptosporidium in feces of Canada geese (Branta canadensis)","volume":"66","author":"Kassa","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12227","article-title":"Pathogen Loading from Canada Geese Faeces in Freshwater: Potential Risks to Human Health Through Recreational Water Exposure","volume":"63","author":"Gorham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.791","article-title":"Survey of zoonotic parasites and bacteria in faeces of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in North-Central Oklahoma","volume":"8","author":"Nagamori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wells, B., Paton, C., Bacchetti, R., Shaw, H., Stewart, W., Plowman, J., Katzer, F., and Innes, E.A. (2019). Cryptosporidium Prevalence in Calves and Geese Co-Grazing on Four Livestock Farms Surrounding Two Reservoirs Supplying Public Water to Mainland Orkney, Scotland. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7110513"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2736","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.7.2736-2738.1998","article-title":"Giardia sp. cysts and infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the feces of migratory Canada geese (Branta canadensis)","volume":"6","author":"Graczyk","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3035","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-021-07289-3","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in wild birds: A One Health perspective","volume":"120","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"13","article-title":"First detection and genotyping of human-associated microsporidia in wild waterfowl of Slovakia","volume":"58","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2007.10.007","article-title":"The role of birds in dissemination of human waterborne enteropathogens","volume":"24","author":"Graczyk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2012.02.014","article-title":"Landscape and field characteristics affecting winter waterfowl grazing damage to agricultural perennial forage crops on the lower Fraser River delta, BC, Canada","volume":"37","author":"Merkens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crop. Protect."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Matthews, K.R., Sapers, G.M., and Gerba, C.P. (2014). The Produce Contamination Problem, Elsevier Inc.. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4540","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02503-05","article-title":"Microsporidian species known to infect humans are present in aquatic birds: Implications for transmission via water?","volume":"72","author":"Graczyk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2020011","article-title":"Update on Cryptosporidium spp.: Highlights from the Seventh International Giardia and Cryptosporidium Conference","volume":"27","author":"Widmer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2017.12.001","article-title":"Host specificity in the Giardia duodenalis species complex","volume":"66","author":"Lalle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2019.07.002","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective","volume":"106","author":"Ryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182015000049","article-title":"Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in wild birds in Galicia (Northwest Spain)","volume":"142","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.1.161-165.2002","article-title":"Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in wild ducks along the Rio Grande River valley in southern New Mexico","volume":"68","author":"Kuhn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-008-1293-9","article-title":"The role of free-ranging, captive, and domestic birds of Western Poland in environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Giardia lamblia cysts","volume":"104","author":"Majewska","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"261","article-title":"Occurrence of parasitic protozoa in wild waterfowl in southern coastal Caspian sea lagoon","volume":"8","author":"Shemshadi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"245","article-title":"Survey of Canada goose feces for presence of Giardia","volume":"8","author":"Ayers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Wildl. Interact."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-022-07717-y","article-title":"First detection of Cryptosporidium proventriculi from wild birds in Cyprus","volume":"122","author":"Hasapis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Majewska, A.C., Kosi\u0144ski, Z., Werner, A., Sulima, P., and Nowosad, P. (2001). Paso\u017cytnicze Pierwotniaki Jelitowe: Nowe Wodnopochodne Zagro\u017cenie Zdrowia Publicznego, Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Akademii Medycznej im. Karola Marcinkowskiego w Poznaniu. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"265","article-title":"Wildlife as an environmental reservoir of Enterocytozoon bieneusi (Microsporidia)\u2014Analyses of data based on molecular methods","volume":"63","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"18","article-title":"Cryptosporidium meleagridis and C. baileyi (Apicomplexa) in domestic and wild birds in Algeria","volume":"64","author":"Holubova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Folia Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4211","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.7.4211-4215.2004","article-title":"Host-adapted Cryptosporidium spp. in Canada geese (Branta canadensis)","volume":"70","author":"Zhou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.1.452-458.2004","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of the hypervariable region of the 18S rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium oocysts in feces of Canada geese (Branta canadensis): Evidence for five novel genotypes","volume":"70","author":"Jellison","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., Gazizova, A., Wang, Y., Zhang, K., Zhang, Y., Chang, Y., Cui, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, S., and Zhang, L. (2019). First Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in Migratory Whooper Swans (Cygnus cygnus) in China. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8010006"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.09-0515","article-title":"First detection of Cryptosporidium baileyi in Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) in China","volume":"72","author":"Amer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.19-0586","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. from migratory ducks around Tokachi subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan","volume":"82","author":"Salama","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.2478\/s11686-020-00230-1","article-title":"Prevalence of Cryptosporidium Infection in the Global Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"65","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04191-2","article-title":"Description of Cryptosporidium ornithophilus n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in farmed ostriches","volume":"13","author":"Sak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2021.08.007","article-title":"Taxonomy and molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia\u2014A 50 year perspective (1971-2021)","volume":"51","author":"Ryan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.2307\/3283201","article-title":"A new coccidian parasite (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from humans","volume":"80","author":"Ortega","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2019004","article-title":"Evaluation of Multilocus Sequence Typing of Cyclospora cayetanensis based on microsatellite markers","volume":"26","author":"Hofstetter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.4467\/16890027AP.21.002.14062","article-title":"Host Range of Cyclospora Species: Zoonotic Implication","volume":"60","author":"Solarczyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Protozool."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeria, S., Cinar, H.N., and Dubey, J.P. (2019). Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7090317"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/173.2.440","article-title":"Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Cyclospora, the human intestinal pathogen, suggests that it is closely related to Eimeria species","volume":"173","author":"Relman","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0001020","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00010-20","article-title":"Microsporidiosis in Humans","volume":"34","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gcb.2010.07.003","article-title":"Microsporidiosis: Epidemiology, clinical data and therapy","volume":"34","author":"Anane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. Biol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/3\/487\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:58:59Z","timestamp":1760122739000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/3\/487"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12030487"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12030487","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]}}}