{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T12:03:19Z","timestamp":1781870599991,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by progressive and irreversible autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cell islets, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency. To date, several epidemiologic and observational studies have evaluated the possible impact of BCG vaccination on T1D development, but the results are controversial. To elucidate this issue, we aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of published cohort studies in this field. (2) Methods: A systematic search was performed for relevant studies published up to 20 September 2022 using Pubmed\/Medline, Embase, and Scopus. Cohort studies, containing original information about the association between T1D and BCG vaccination, were included for further analysis. Pooled estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the risk ratio of T1D in BCG-vaccinated individuals compared to unvaccinated ones were assessed using the fixed effect model. (3) Results: Out of 630 potentially relevant articles, five cohort studies met the inclusion criteria. The total population of all included studies was 864,582. The overall pooled risk ratio of T1D development in BCG vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals was found to be 1.018 (95% CI 0.908\u20131.141, I2: 0%). (4) Conclusions: Our study revealed no protective or facilitative effect of prior BCG vaccination in T1D development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12040581","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T02:08:11Z","timestamp":1681265291000},"page":"581","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["BCG Vaccination and the Risk of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2295-5081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Parnian","family":"Jamshidi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"},{"name":"Center of Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Hazards Control, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3742-642X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bardia","family":"Danaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benyamin","family":"Mohammadzadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahta","family":"Arbabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amirhossein","family":"Nayebzade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0566-2049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo A.","family":"Sechi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"},{"name":"SC Microbiologia e Virologia, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3279-0671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Javad","family":"Nasiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1985717443, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31320-5","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes","volume":"391","author":"DiMeglio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(22)00218-2","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence, and mortality of type 1 diabetes in 2021 with projection to 2040: A modelling study","volume":"10","author":"Gregory","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet. 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