{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T01:38:41Z","timestamp":1789436321258,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]],"date-time":"2023-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universidad UTE"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avian influenza (AI) is a contagious disease among the poultry population with high avian mortality, which generates significant economic losses and elevated costs for disease control and outbreak eradication. AI is caused by an RNA virus part of the Orthomyxoviridae family; however, only Influenzavirus A is capable of infecting birds. AI pathogenicity is based on the lethality, signs, and molecular characteristics of the virus. Low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) virus has a low mortality rate and ability to infect, whereas the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus can cross respiratory and intestinal barriers, diffuse to the blood, damage all tissues of the bird, and has a high mortality rate. Nowadays, avian influenza is a global public health concern due to its zoonotic potential. Wild waterfowl is the natural reservoir of AI viruses, and the oral\u2013fecal path is the main transmission route between birds. Similarly, transmission to other species generally occurs after virus circulation in densely populated infected avian species, indicating that AI viruses can adapt to promote the spread. Moreover, HPAI is a notifiable animal disease; therefore, all countries must report infections to the health authorities. Regarding laboratory diagnoses, the presence of influenza virus type A can be identified by agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID), enzyme immunoassay (EIA), immunofluorescence assays, and enzyme-linked immunoadsorption assay (ELISAs). Furthermore, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction is used for viral RNA detection and is considered the gold standard for the management of suspect and confirmed cases of AI. If there is suspicion of a case, epidemiological surveillance protocols must be initiated until a definitive diagnosis is obtained. Moreover, if there is a confirmed case, containment actions should be prompt and strict precautions must be taken when handling infected poultry cases or infected materials. The containment measures for confirmed cases include the sanitary slaughter of infected poultry using methods such as environment saturation with CO2, carbon dioxide foam, and cervical dislocation. For disposal, burial, and incineration, protocols should be followed. Lastly, disinfection of affected poultry farms must be carried out. The present review aims to provide an overview of the avian influenza virus, strategies for its management, the challenges an outbreak can generate, and recommendations for informed decision making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12040610","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,18]],"date-time":"2023-04-18T02:30:03Z","timestamp":1681785003000},"page":"610","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Avian Influenza: Strategies to Manage an Outbreak"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Alison","family":"Simancas-Racines","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Recursos Naturales, Carrera de Medicina Veterinaria Universidad T\u00e9cnica de Cotopaxi, Latacunga 050108, Ecuador"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Gen\u00e9tica y Gen\u00f3mica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Eugenio Espejo, Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n de Salud P\u00fablica y Epidemiolog\u00eda Cl\u00ednica (CISPEC), Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8463-6046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santiago","family":"Cadena-Ullauri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Gen\u00e9tica y Gen\u00f3mica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Eugenio Espejo, Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patricia","family":"Guevara-Ram\u00edrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Gen\u00e9tica y Gen\u00f3mica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Eugenio Espejo, Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana Karina","family":"Zambrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Gen\u00e9tica y Gen\u00f3mica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud Eugenio Espejo, Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Simancas-Racines","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n de Salud P\u00fablica y Epidemiolog\u00eda Cl\u00ednica (CISPEC), Universidad UTE, Quito 170129, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Car\u00eda, D., Ferrer, M.E., and Chuard, N. 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