{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T14:29:06Z","timestamp":1773066546268,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,28]],"date-time":"2023-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690502400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Gram-negative bacterium Gallibacterium anatis is part of the normal avian respiratory, intestinal and reproductive tract microflora and can be transmitted horizontally and vertically. With the coexistence of other relevant factors, G. anatis becomes an opportunistic pathogen, economically damaging to the poultry industry. This bacterium\u2019s prevalence and molecular epidemiology were investigated, and the antimicrobial treatment options for G. anatis infection in chicken flocks in Poland were assessed. Tracheal samples from 182 flocks were collected between April 2022 and March 2023. The bacterial prevalence was determined by PCR targeting the gyrB gene and 16\u201323S rRNA. Gallibacterium anatis was identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption\/ionisation\u2013time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) after culturing and PCR amplification. Isolates\u2019 susceptibility to 11 antimicrobials was assessed with a disc diffusion test. Isolates were also tested for gyrB, GtxA and flfA virulence genes and blaROB, aphA, tetB and tetH antibiotic resistance genes by PCR. Forty-one flocks (22.5%) were positive through PCR. Antibiotic resistance was most frequently observed against tilmicosin, tylosin, enrofloxacin, amoxicillin, tetracycline and doxycycline. Multiple resistance to at least eight antibiotics occurred in 20% of isolates and to at least four in 100%. The occurrence of gyrB was noted in 100%, GtxA was detected in 89%, and flfA was found in 14% of positive samples. The tetB gene was present in 61.0% of positive samples, tetH was in 36.0%, aphA was in 16.7%, and blaROB was in 5.6%. Significant differences were found in G. anatis isolates related to the presence of the virulence genes GtxA and gyrB and the presence of resistance genes (p &lt; 0.05) associated with resistance to tetracyclines, \u03b2-lactams and aminoglycosides. The continued rise in the resistance of G. anatis to a broadening range of antibiotics is a major problem for the poultry industry worldwide, as well as for public health. The findings of this study may expand the knowledge of the pathogenicity of G. anatis in poultry.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12080992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,31]],"date-time":"2023-07-31T03:30:02Z","timestamp":1690774202000},"page":"992","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Prevalence, Identification and Antibiotic Resistance of Gallibacterium anatis Isolates from Chickens in Poland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0058-1568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olimpia","family":"Kursa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Tomczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Agata","family":"Sieczkowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0162-2242","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Sawicka-Durkalec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"324","article-title":"Gallibacterium Anatis: An Emerging Pathogen of Poultry Birds and Domiciled Birds","volume":"7","author":"Singh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Christensen, H., Kuhnert, P., Norskov-Lauritsen, N., Planet, P.J., and Bisgaard, M. (2014). The Prokaryotes: Gammaproteobacteria, Springer."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pey007","article-title":"Immunology, Health, and Disease: Isolation, Characterization, and Antibiotic Sensitivity Assessment of Gallibacterium Anatis Biovar Haemolytica, from Diseased Egyptian Chicken Flocks during the Years 2013 and 2015","volume":"97","author":"Elbestawy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2014.967176","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Gallibacterium Anatis in a Natural Infection Model Fulfils Koch\u2019s Postulates: 2. Epididymitis and Decreased Semen Quality Are the Predominant Effects in Specific Pathogen Free Cockerels","volume":"43","author":"Paudel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450802577848","article-title":"Tissue Distribution of Haemolytic Gallibacterium Anatis Isolates in Laying Birds with Reproductive Disorders","volume":"38","author":"Neubauer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1637\/11063-031615-Case.1","article-title":"Co-Infection with Multiple Respiratory Pathogens Contributes to Increased Mortality Rates in Algerian Poultry Flocks","volume":"59","author":"Sid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.03.005","article-title":"Transmission and Pathogenicity of Gallibacterium Anatis and Escherichia Coli in Embryonated Eggs","volume":"217","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.2141\/jpsa.41.161","article-title":"Factors Affecting Egg Internal Quality and Egg Shell Quality in Laying Hens","volume":"41","author":"Roberts","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2020.1712495","article-title":"Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathology, and Advances in Diagnosis, Vaccine Development, and Treatment of Gallibacterium Anatis Infection in Poultry: A Review","volume":"40","author":"Dhama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-015-0206-z","article-title":"Bacterial Determinants of Importance in the Virulence of Gallibacterium Anatis in Poultry","volume":"46","author":"Persson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"721","article-title":"Isolation of Drug-Resistant Gallibacterium Anatis from Calves with Unresponsive Bronchopneumonia, Belgium","volume":"26","author":"Vanneste","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4321","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S377797","article-title":"Sequence Analysis, Antibiogram Profile, Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance Genes of XDR and MDR Gallibacterium Anatis Isolated from Layer Chickens in Egypt","volume":"15","author":"Algammal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3897","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01638-13","article-title":"Gallibacterium Anatis Bacteremia in a Human","volume":"51","author":"Haloun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2016.1184743","article-title":"Culture-Independent Identification and Quantification of Gallibacterium anatis (G. anatis) by Real-Time Quantitative PCR","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.02.013","article-title":"Specific Identification of Gallibacterium by a PCR Using Primers Targeting the 16S RRNA and 23S RRNA Genes","volume":"123","author":"Bojesen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450310001652059","article-title":"In Vivo Studies of Gallibacterium Anatis Infection in Chickens","volume":"33","author":"Bojesen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, T.J., Danzeisen, J.L., Trampel, D., Nolan, L.K., Seemann, T., Bager, R.J., and Bojesen, A.M. (2013). Genome Analysis and Phylogenetic Relatedness of Gallibacterium Anatis Strains from Poultry. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0054844"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"516","article-title":"Isolation and Biochemical Characterization of Pasteurella Multocida and Gallibacterium Anatis Strains in Poultry with Respiratory Signs","volume":"25","author":"Castillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Investig. Vet. Peru"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2544","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81984-0","article-title":"Bacterial Communities of the Upper Respiratory Tract of Turkeys","volume":"11","author":"Kursa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kursa, O., Tomczyk, G., Adamska, K., Chrzanowska, J., and Sawicka-Durkalec, A. (2022). The Microbial Community of the Respiratory Tract of Commercial Chickens and Turkeys. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10050987"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2019.0056","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance Profiling of Gallibacterium Anatis from Layers Reveals High Number of Multiresistant Strains and Substantial Variability Even between Isolates from the Same Organ","volume":"26","author":"Hess","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1177\/10406387221133782","article-title":"Identification, 16S RRNA\u2013Based Characterization, and Antimicrobial Profile of Gallibacterium Isolates from Broiler and Layer Chickens","volume":"35","author":"Shabbir","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.02330-0","article-title":"Genetic Relationship among Avian Isolates Classified as Pasteurella Haemolytica. \u201cActinobacillus Salpingitidis\u201d or Pasteurella Anatis with Proposal of Gallibacterium Anatis Gen. Nov., Comb. Nov. and Description of Additional Genomospecies with Gallibacterium Gen. Nov","volume":"53","author":"Christensen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.36380\/jwpr.2020.45","article-title":"Gallibacterium Anatis: Moleculer Detection of Tetracycline Resistance and Virulence Gene","volume":"10","author":"Yaman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Worlds Poult. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2010.08.011","article-title":"Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Tetracycline Resistance Determinant Genotyping of Gallibacterium Anatis","volume":"148","author":"Bojesen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-021-00894-1","article-title":"Clonal Spread of Multi-Resistant Gallibacterium Anatis Isolates among Iranian Broilers and Layers","volume":"52","author":"Allahghadry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-018-0116-2","article-title":"Identification, Differentiation and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Gallibacterium Isolates from Diseased Poultry","volume":"71","author":"Bocklisch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ir. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2010.11.015","article-title":"The Rarely Reported Tet(31) Tetracycline Resistance Determinant Is Common in Gallibacterium Anatis","volume":"149","author":"Bojesen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2009073","article-title":"GtxA from Gallibacterium Anatis, a Cytolytic RTX-Toxin with a Novel Domain Organisation","volume":"41","author":"Kristensen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcp.2020.101641","article-title":"The Role of GtxA during Gallibacterium Anatis Infection of Primary Chicken Oviduct Epithelial Cells","volume":"53","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Probes"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, B., and Bojesen, A.M. (2020). Immune Suppression Induced by Gallibacterium Anatis Gtxa during Interaction with Chicken Macrophage-like HD11 Cells. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12090536"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.03.010","article-title":"Vaccination with Outer Membrane Vesicles and the Fimbrial Protein FlfA Offers Improved Protection against Lesions Following Challenge with Gallibacterium Anatis","volume":"217","author":"Persson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/8\/992\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:21:44Z","timestamp":1760127704000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/8\/992"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,28]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12080992"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12080992","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,28]]}}}