{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T16:31:20Z","timestamp":1792427480666,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monkeypox, a viral zoonotic disease, has emerged as a significant global threat in recent years. This review focuses on the importance of global monitoring and rapid response to monkeypox outbreaks. The unpredictable nature of monkeypox transmissions, its potential for human-to-human spread, and its high morbidity rate underscore the necessity for proactive surveillance systems. By analyzing the existing literature, including recent outbreaks, this review highlights the critical role of global surveillance in detecting, containing, and preventing the further spread of monkeypox. It also emphasizes the need for enhanced international collaboration, data sharing, and real-time information exchange to effectively respond to monkeypox outbreaks as a global health concern. Furthermore, this review discusses the challenges and opportunities of implementing robust surveillance strategies, including the use of advanced diagnostic tools and technologies. Ultimately, these findings underscore the urgency of establishing a comprehensive global monitoring framework for monkeypox, enabling early detection, prompt response, and effective control measures to protect public health worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12091153","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T08:58:08Z","timestamp":1694422688000},"page":"1153","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Monitoring Monkeypox: Safeguarding Global Health through Rapid Response and Global Surveillance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Giovanetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Rene Rachou Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte 30190-009, Minas Gerais, Brazil"},{"name":"Sciences and Technologies for Sustainable Development and One Health, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Climate Amplified Diseases and Epidemics (CLIMADE), Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7870-9744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Cella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sonia","family":"Moretti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National HIV\/AIDS Research Center (CNAIDS), National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3501-714X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Scarpa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Ciccozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0805-6140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svetoslav Nanev","family":"Slavov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Butantan Institute, Blood Center of Ribeir\u00e3o Preto, Faculty of Medicine of Ribeir\u00e3o Preto, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Ribeir\u00e3o Preto 05508-220, S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8720-090X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Benedetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Human Virology and Global Virus Network Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5576-5770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Zella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Human Virology and Global Virus Network Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5921-3180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giancarlo","family":"Ceccarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3866-9239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Ciccozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5401-135X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Borsetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National HIV\/AIDS Research Center (CNAIDS), National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.45","article-title":"Pathways to zoonotic spillover","volume":"15","author":"Plowright","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14830","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14830","article-title":"Spillover and pandemic properties of zoonotic viruses with high host plasticity","volume":"5","author":"Hitchens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"44","article-title":"Zoonotic spillover: Understanding basic aspects for better prevention","volume":"4","author":"Ellwanger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). Monkeypox Epidemiological Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/monkeypox."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). Monkeypox: Experts Give Virus Variants New Names. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/12-08-2022-monkeypox--experts-give-virus-variants-new."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01907-y","article-title":"Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus","volume":"28","author":"Isidro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, K., and Leggat, P.A. (2016). Human Monkeypox: Current State of Knowledge and Implications for the Future. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 1.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed1010008"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). World Health Organization. (Monkeypox). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/monk."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). World Health Organization (18 May 2022). Disease Outbreak News; Monkeypox\u2013United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/disease-outbreak-news\/item\/2022-DON383."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00055-5","article-title":"New nomenclature for mpox (monkeypox) and monkeypox virus clades","volume":"23","author":"Ulaeto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"20","article-title":"Urgent need for a non-discriminatory and non-stigmatizing nomenclature for monkeypox virus","volume":"23","author":"Happi","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1126\/science.add4507","article-title":"Heavy-tailed sexual contact networks and monkeypox epidemiology in the global outbreak, 2022","volume":"378","author":"Endo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2022.102402","article-title":"Phylogenomic analysis of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) 2022 outbreak: Emergence of a novel viral lineage?","volume":"49","author":"Luna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Travel. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2023, July 19). GISAID. Available online: https:\/\/www.epicov.org\/epi3\/frontend#56ec7d."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1270","article-title":"Genomic Surveillance of Monkeypox Virus, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2022","volume":"29","author":"Lamounier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarpa, F., Sanna, D., Azzena, I., Cossu, P., Locci, C., Angeletti, S., Maruotti, A., Ceccarelli, G., Casu, M., and Fiori, P.L. (2022). Genetic Variability of the Monkeypox Virus Clade IIb B. 1. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11216388"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28036","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28036","article-title":"Genomic annotation and molecular evolution of monkeypox virus outbreak in 2022","volume":"95","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2022.08.013","article-title":"A distinct phylogenetic cluster of Monkeypox genomes suggests an early and cryptic spread of the virus","volume":"86","author":"Jolly","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2022.105372","article-title":"Monkeypox virus: The changing facets of a zoonotic pathogen","volume":"105","author":"Forni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02090-w","article-title":"Low levels of monkeypox virus-neutralizing antibodies after MVA-BN vaccination in healthy individuals","volume":"29","author":"Zaeck","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0361","article-title":"Application of the Ibis-T5000 panorthopoxvirus assay to quantitatively detect monkeypox viral loads in clinical specimens from macaques experimentally infected with aerosolized monkeypox virus","volume":"82","author":"Grant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2006.03.012","article-title":"Detection of monkeypox virus with real-time PCR assays","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2023.105421","article-title":"Correlation between monkeypox viral load and infectious virus in clinical specimens","volume":"161","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21494","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based diagnostic assay for monkeypox virus infections","volume":"81","author":"Iizuka","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2019.03.015","article-title":"Recombinase polymerase amplification assay for rapid detection of Monkeypox virus","volume":"95","author":"Davi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0567","article-title":"Evaluation of the GeneXpert for human monkeypox diagnosis","volume":"96","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sood, A., Sui, Y., McDonough, E., Santamar\u00eda-Pang, A., Al-Kofahi, Y., Pang, Z., Jahrling, P.B., Kuhn, J.H., and Ginty, F. (2020). Comparison of multiplexed immunofluorescence imaging to chromogenic immunohistochemistry of skin biomarkers in response to monkeypox virus infection. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12080787"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/br.37.1.1-18.1973","article-title":"Monkeypox virus","volume":"37","author":"Cho","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bacteriol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.12.7.867-872.2005","article-title":"Characterization of acutephase humoral immunity to monkeypox: Use of immunoglobulin M enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of monkeypox infection during the 2003 North American outbreak","volume":"12","author":"Karem","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00241","article-title":"Emergence of monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans","volume":"6","author":"Sklenovska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). CDN. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/searo\/whe\/monkeypox\/searo-mp-techbrief_priority-actions_300522.pdf?sfvrsn=ae7be762_1."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, July 19). White House, Available online: https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/ostp\/news-updates\/2022\/08\/11\/fact-sheet-ongoing-u-s-monkeypox-research-activities-to-speed-science-for-impact\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01106-0","article-title":"Monkeypox genomic surveillance will challenge lessons learned from SARS-CoV-2","volume":"2","author":"Pfaff","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"852","article-title":"The detection of monkeypox virus DNA in wastewater samples in the Netherlands","volume":"15","author":"Peterse","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiwari, A., Adhikari, S., Zhang, S., Solomon, T.B., Lipponen, A., Islam, M.A., Thakali, O., Sangkham, S., Shaheen, M.N.F., and Jiang, G. (2023). Tracing COVID-19 Trails in Wastewater: A Systematic Review of SARS-CoV-2 Surveillance with Viral Variants. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15061018"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"5","article-title":"MPoxVR: A comprehensive genomic resource for monkeypox virus variant surveillance","volume":"3","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Innovation"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W331","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkad325","article-title":"MpoxRadar: A worldwide MPXV genomic surveillance dashboard","volume":"5","author":"Nasri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2023.105405","article-title":"Global SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance: What we have learned (so far)","volume":"108","author":"Tosta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00359-0","article-title":"Tracking the 2022 monkeypox outbreak with epidemiological data in real-time","volume":"22","author":"Kraemer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"WHO (2023, July 19). Genomic Surveillance. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/initiatives\/genomic-surveillance-strategy."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/9\/1153\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:48:42Z","timestamp":1760129322000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/9\/1153"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12091153"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12091153","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]}}}