{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T13:57:51Z","timestamp":1782914271239,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>During the past four decades, recurrent outbreaks of various arthropod-borne viruses have been reported in Mauritania. This review aims to consolidate the current knowledge on the epidemiology of the major arboviruses circulating in Mauritania. Online databases including PubMed and Web of Science were used to retrieve relevant published studies. The results showed that numerous arboviral outbreaks of variable magnitude occurred in almost all 13 regions of Mauritania, with Rift Valley fever (RVF), Crimean\u2013Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF), and dengue (DEN) being the most common infections. Other arboviruses causing yellow fever (YF), chikungunya (CHIK), o\u2019nyong-nyong (ONN), Semliki Forest (SF), West Nile fever (WNF), Bagaza (BAG), Wesselsbron (WSL), and Ngari (NRI) diseases have also been found circulating in humans and\/or livestock in Mauritania. The average case fatality rates of CCHF and RVF were 28.7% and 21.1%, respectively. RVF outbreaks have often occurred after unusually heavy rainfalls, while CCHF epidemics have mostly been reported during the dry season. The central and southeastern regions of the country have carried the highest burden of RVF and CCHF. Sheep, cattle, and camels are the main animal reservoirs for the RVF and CCHF viruses. Culex antennatus and Cx. poicilipes mosquitoes and Hyalomma dromedarii, H. rufipes, and Rhipicephalus everesti ticks are the main vectors of these viruses. DEN outbreaks occurred mainly in the urban settings, including in Nouakchott, the capital city, and Aedes aegypti is likely the main mosquito vector. Therefore, there is a need to implement an integrated management strategy for the prevention and control of arboviral diseases based on sensitizing the high-risk occupational groups, such as slaughterhouse workers, shepherds, and butchers for zoonotic diseases, reinforcing vector surveillance and control, introducing rapid point-of-care diagnosis of arboviruses in high-risk areas, and improving the capacities to respond rapidly when the first signs of disease outbreak are identified.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12111370","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T01:54:12Z","timestamp":1700445252000},"page":"1370","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Arthropod-Borne Viruses in Mauritania: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6084-2644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdallahi","family":"El Ghassem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bedia","family":"Abdoullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jemila","family":"Deida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed Aly","family":"Ould Lemrabott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Ouldabdallahi Moukah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed Salem","family":"Ould Ahmedou Salem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8872-1774","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e9bastien","family":"Briolant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Parasitologie Entomologie, D\u00e9partement de Microbiologie et Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biom\u00e9dicale des Arm\u00e9es (IRBA), 13005 Marseille, France"},{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Assistance Publique-H\u00f4pitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Service de Sant\u00e9 des Arm\u00e9es (SSA), Vecteurs\u2014Infections Tropicales et M\u00e9diterran\u00e9ennes (VITROME), Aix Marseille Universit\u00e9, 13005 Marseille, France"},{"name":"Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire (IHU)-M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e Infection, 13005 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8812-8185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo K.","family":"Basco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Assistance Publique-H\u00f4pitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Service de Sant\u00e9 des Arm\u00e9es (SSA), Vecteurs\u2014Infections Tropicales et M\u00e9diterran\u00e9ennes (VITROME), Aix Marseille Universit\u00e9, 13005 Marseille, France"},{"name":"Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire (IHU)-M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e Infection, 13005 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khyarhoum","family":"Ould Brahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7317-2776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche G\u00e9nomes et Milieux, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 de Nouakchott, Nouakchott BP 880, Mauritania"},{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Assistance Publique-H\u00f4pitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Service de Sant\u00e9 des Arm\u00e9es (SSA), Vecteurs\u2014Infections Tropicales et M\u00e9diterran\u00e9ennes (VITROME), Aix Marseille Universit\u00e9, 13005 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2020). Vector-Borne Diseases: Fact Sheet, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/vector-borne-diseases."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.09.004","article-title":"Best practices for preventing vector-borne diseases in dogs and humans","volume":"32","author":"Otranto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3515-7","article-title":"Risk factors associated with sustained circulation of six zoonotic arboviruses: A systematic review for selection of surveillance sites in non-endemic areas","volume":"12","author":"Esser","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-018-0002-9","article-title":"Mosquito-associated viruses in China","volume":"33","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (1985). Arthropod-Borne and Rodent-Borne Viral Diseases: Report of a WHO Scientific Group, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/39922."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3030","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2612.201599","article-title":"Unique outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Sudan, 2019","volume":"26","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/S0188-4409(02)00378-8","article-title":"The global emergence\/resurgence of arboviral diseases as public health problems","volume":"33","author":"Gubler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1605.091815","article-title":"Nosocomial outbreak of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Sudan","volume":"16","author":"Aradaib","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-2516(89)80081-0","article-title":"General aspects of the 1987 Rift Valley fever epidemic in Mauritania","volume":"140","author":"Digoutte","year":"1989","journal-title":"Res. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1012.040535","article-title":"Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Mauritania","volume":"10","author":"Nabeth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerken, K.N., LaBeaud, A.D., Mandi, H., Jackson, M.L., Breugelmans, J.G., and King, C.H. (2022). Paving the way for human vaccination against Rift Valley fever virus: A systematic literature review of RVFV epidemiology from 1999 to 2021. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009852"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1307.061487","article-title":"Rift Valley fever outbreak with East-Central African virus lineage in Mauritania, 2003","volume":"13","author":"Faye","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1710.110397","article-title":"Unexpected Rift Valley fever outbreak, northern Mauritania","volume":"17","author":"Baba","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-1978-y","article-title":"Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Mauritania: A review of their biodiversity, distribution and medical importance","volume":"10","author":"Moukah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fouri\u00e9, T., El Bara, A., Dubot-P\u00e9r\u00e8s, A., Grard, G., Briolant, S., Basco, L.K., Moukah, M.O., and Leparc-Goffart, I. (2021). Emergence of dengue virus serotype 2 in Mauritania and molecular characterization of its circulation in West Africa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009829"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0269-283X.2005.00564.x","article-title":"Mosquito vectors of the 1998-1999 outbreak of Rift Valley Fever and other arboviruses (Bagaza, Sanar, Wesselsbron and West Nile) in Mauritania and Senegal","volume":"19","author":"Diallo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268816003022","article-title":"Serological and genomic evidence of Rift Valley fever virus during inter-epidemic periods in Mauritania","volume":"145","author":"Rissmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.131000","article-title":"Rift Valley fever outbreak, southern Mauritania, 2012","volume":"20","author":"Sow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofx087","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofx087","article-title":"Detection of the northeastern African Rift Valley Fever virus lineage during the 2015 outbreak in Mauritania","volume":"4","author":"Bob","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Forum. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mutua, E.N., Bukachi, S.A., Bett, B.K., Estambale, B.A., and Nyamongo, I.K. (2017). \u201cWe do not bury dead livestock like human beings\u201d: Community behaviors and risk of Rift Valley Fever virus infection in Baringo County, Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005582"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2023, October 19). World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE): Rift Valley Fever. Available online: https:\/\/www.woah.org\/en\/disease\/rift-valley-fever\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.2478\/jvetres-2021-0009","article-title":"Rift Valley fever\u2014A growing threat to humans and animals","volume":"65","author":"Kwasnik","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, A., Dietrich, I., LaBeaud, A.D., Lindsay, S.W., Musa, A., and Weaver, S.C. (2020). Risks and challenges of arboviral diseases in Sudan: The urgent need for actions. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12010081"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e06041","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2020.6041","article-title":"Rift Valley fever\u2014Epidemiological update and risk of introduction into Europe","volume":"18","author":"Nielsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/S0769-2617(88)80046-7","article-title":"An RVF epidemic in southern Mauritania","volume":"139","author":"Jouan","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ann. Inst. Pasteur. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(87)92110-6","article-title":"Focus of Rift Valley fever virus transmission in southern Mauritania","volume":"1","author":"Saluzzo","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"135","article-title":"Rift Valley fever epizootic in small ruminants in southern Mauritania (October 1993): Risk of extensive outbreaks","volume":"75","author":"Zeller","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0706.010627","article-title":"Rift Valley fever outbreak, Mauritania, 1998: Seroepidemiologic, virologic, entomologic, and zoologic investigations","volume":"7","author":"Nabeth","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.130996","article-title":"Reemergence of Rift Valley fever, Mauritania, 2010","volume":"20","author":"Faye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"169","article-title":"L\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie de fi\u00e8vre de la Vall\u00e9e du Rift en Mauritanie en 2012","volume":"12","author":"Kane","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Afr. Sant\u00e9 Prod. Anim."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"WHO (2012). Outbreak news: Rift Valley fever, Mauritania. Wkly. Epidem. Rec., 87, 438."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofw200","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofw200","article-title":"Severe human illness caused by Rift Valley fever virus in Mauritania, 2015","volume":"3","author":"Boushab","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open Forum. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"WHO (2020). Rift Valley Fever, Mauritania, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/disease-outbreak-news\/item\/rift-valley-fever-mauritania."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2022.100413","article-title":"Rift Valley fever, Mauritania, 2020: Lessons from a one health approach","volume":"15","author":"Barry","year":"2022","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2023, August 21). OCHA: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Services. Rift Valley Fever\u2014Mauritania. Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/mauritania\/rift-valley-fever-mauritania-0."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"WHO (2023, March 03). Rift Valley Fever\u2014Mauritania. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/disease-outbreak-news\/item\/2022-DON417."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1278","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1278","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus outbreak in Mauritania yet again in 2022: No room for complacency","volume":"6","author":"Tabassum","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12142","article-title":"Molecular and serological studies on the Rift Valley fever outbreak in Mauritania in 2010","volume":"60","author":"Eiden","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-021-02636-z","article-title":"Sero-surveillance of emerging viral diseases in camels and cattle in Nouakchott, Mauritania: An abattoir study","volume":"53","author":"Cosseddu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"86","article-title":"Congo virus: A hitherto undescribed virus occurring in Africa. I. Human isolations-clinical notes","volume":"44","author":"Simpson","year":"1967","journal-title":"East Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/15.4.307","article-title":"The epidemiology of tick-borne Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in Asia, Europe, and Africa","volume":"15","author":"Hoogstraal","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.07.006","article-title":"Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever: History, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical syndrome and genetic diversity","volume":"100","author":"Bente","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2019.12.001","article-title":"Nosocomial infections caused by Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus","volume":"105","author":"Tsergouli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trv050","article-title":"The global distribution of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever","volume":"109","author":"Messina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2019.2592","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in domesticated animals in northwestern Senegal","volume":"20","author":"Mangombi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2023.03.016","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus and Rift Valley fever virus in human population in Senegal from October to November 2020","volume":"7","author":"Sankhe","year":"2023","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)92014-8","article-title":"Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever and Rift Valley fever in south-eastern Mauritania","volume":"1","author":"Saluzzo","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90356-6","article-title":"Haemorrhagic fever caused by Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever virus in Mauritania","volume":"79","author":"Saluzzo","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"24","article-title":"Sero-epidemiological study in Mauritania (1985\u20131986): Incidence of treponematosis, hepatitis B virus, HIV virus and viral hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"81","author":"Lepers","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. Filiales."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(90)90045-G","article-title":"A fatal case of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in Mauritania: Virological and serological evidence suggesting epidemic transmission","volume":"84","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1990","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies, WHO."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies, WHO."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies, WHO."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2604.191292","article-title":"Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Mauritania","volume":"26","author":"Boushab","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies, WHO."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac534","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac534","article-title":"Investigation around cases of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever-Mauritania, 2022","volume":"9","author":"Boushab","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"WHO (2022). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies, WHO."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2016.2084","article-title":"Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus-specific antibody detection in cattle in Mauritania","volume":"17","author":"Sas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz, A., Barry, Y., Stoek, F., Ba, A., Schulz, J., Haki, M.L., Sas, M.A., Doumbia, B.A., Kirkland, P., and Bah, M.Y. (2021). Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus antibody prevalence in Mauritanian livestock (cattle, goats, sheep and camels) is stratified by the animal\u2019s age. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009228"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aradaib, I.E., Erickson, B.R., Karsany, M.S., Khristova, M.L., Elageb, R.M., Mohamed, M.E.H., and Nichol, S.T. (2011). Multiple Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus strains are associated with disease outbreaks in Sudan, 2008\u20132009. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001159"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"WHO (2023, October 15). Dengue and Severe Dengue 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/westernpacific\/health-topics\/dengue-and-severe-dengue#tab=tab_1."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2009.0005","article-title":"Comparative role of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti in the emergence of Dengue and Chikungunya in central Africa","volume":"10","author":"Paupy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50135-x","article-title":"Dengue virus infection in people residing in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies","volume":"9","author":"Simo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Jimena, B., Bekaert, M., Bakheit, M., Frischmann, S., Patel, P., Simon-Loriere, E., Lambrechts, L., Duong, V., Dussart, P., and Harold, G. (2018). Development and validation of four one-step real-time RT-LAMP assays for specific detection of each dengue virus serotype. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006381"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjv051","article-title":"Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in Mauritania: First report on the presence of the arbovirus mosquito vector in Nouakchott","volume":"52","author":"Brengues","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124848","DOI":"10.3389\/fviro.2023.1124848","article-title":"Molecular characterization of dengue virus serotype 1 infections in French travelers from Africa between 2013 and 2019","volume":"3","author":"Durand","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"WHO (2018). Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies: Week 45: 3\u20139 November 2018, WHO."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30178-9","article-title":"Climate change could shift disease burden from malaria to arboviruses in Africa","volume":"4","author":"Mordecai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoek, F., Barry, Y., Ba, A., Schulz, A., Rissmann, M., Wylezich, C., Sadeghi, B., Beyit, A.D., Eisenbarth, A., and N\u2019diaye, F.B. (2022). Mosquito survey in Mauritania: Detection of Rift Valley fever virus and dengue virus and the determination of feeding patterns. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010203"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"WHO (1987). Viral Haemorrhagic Fever: Rift Valley Fever\/Yellow Fever. Wkly. Epidem. Rec., 62, 367."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2174","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2012.140787","article-title":"Ngari virus in goats during Rift Valley fever outbreak, Mauritania, 2010","volume":"20","author":"Eiden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cichon, N., Barry, Y., Stoek, F., Diambar, A., Ba, A., Ziegler, U., Rissmann, M., Schulz, J., Haki, M.L., and H\u00f6per, D. (2021). Co-circulation of Orthobunyaviruses and Rift Valley fever virus in Mauritania, 2015. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.766977"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.34.2.2361","article-title":"Epizootic haemorrhagic disease","volume":"34","author":"Maclachlan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-031616-035010","article-title":"African horse sickness virus: History, transmission, and current status","volume":"62","author":"Carpenter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdoullah, B., Durand, G.A., Basco, L.K., El Bara, A., Bollahi, M.A., Bosio, L., Geulen, M., Briolant, S., and Boukhary, A.O.M.S. (2023). Seroprevalence of alphaviruses (Togaviridae) among urban population in Nouakchott, Mauritania, West Africa. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15071588"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"611","article-title":"Epidemic of Rift Valley fever in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. Geographic and ecological data","volume":"83","author":"Jouan","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110100903","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever outbreaks in Mauritania and related environmental conditions","volume":"11","author":"Caminade","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"10005","article-title":"Conditions environnementales associ\u00e9es \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9mergence de la fi\u00e8vre de la Vall\u00e9e du Rift (FVR) dans le delta du fleuve S\u00e9n\u00e9gal en 1987","volume":"4","author":"Ndione","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Risques Sant\u00e9"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"621","article-title":"Evaluation of indicators of health in the area of Trarza during the epidemic of Rift Valley fever in 1987","volume":"83","author":"Jouan","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Johnson, N. (2014). The Role of Animals in Emerging Viral Diseases, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.296","article-title":"Mapping Rift Valley fever and malaria risk over West Africa using climatic indicators","volume":"12","author":"Caminade","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2351","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14578","article-title":"The Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever tick vector Hyalomma marginatum in the south of France: Modelling its distribution and determination of factors influencing its establishment in a newly invaded area","volume":"69","author":"Bah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Monath, T.P. (1988). The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1865-1682.2010.01198.x","article-title":"A population model to describe the distribution and seasonal dynamics of the tick Hyalomma marginatum in the Mediterranean Basin","volume":"58","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2011.0771","article-title":"An assessment of the distribution and spread of the tick Hyalomma marginatum in the western Palearctic under different climate scenarios","volume":"12","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"303","article-title":"Ecology of ticks as potential vectors of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in Senegal: Epidemiological implications","volume":"11","author":"Camicas","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2013.09.006","article-title":"Impact of drought on vector-borne diseases\u2014How does one manage the risk?","volume":"128","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zahouli, J.B.Z., Koudou, B.G., M\u00fcller, P., Malone, D., Tano, Y., and Utzinger, J. (2017). Urbanization is a main driver for the larval ecology of Aedes mosquitoes in arbovirus-endemic settings in south-eastern C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005751"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Inter-R\u00e9seaux D\u00e9veloppement Rural (2017). Pastoral Livestock Farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 Preconceptions Put to the Test, Inter-R\u00e9seaux D\u00e9veloppement Rural. Available online: https:\/\/www.inter-reseaux.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/int-17-broch-pastoralismeuk-bd.pdf."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Minist\u00e8re de L\u2019\u00e9levage (2017). Plan National de D\u00e9veloppement de L\u2019\u00e9levage 2018\u20132025, Minist\u00e8re de L\u2019\u00e9levage. Available online: https:\/\/faolex.fao.org\/docs\/pdf\/Mau190618.pdf."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Apolloni, A., Nicolas, G., Coste, C., EL Mamy, A.B., Yahya, B., EL Arbi, A.S., Gueya, M.B., Baba, D., Gilbert, M., and Lancelot, R. (2018). Towards the description of livestock mobility in Sahelian Africa: Some results from a survey in Mauritania. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0191565"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2591-9","article-title":"Ecological distribution and population dynamics of Rift Valley fever virus mosquito vectors (Diptera, Culicidae) in Senegal","volume":"11","author":"Biteye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicolas, G., Apolloni, A., Coste, C., Wint, G.R.W., Lancelot, R., and Gilbert, M. (2018). Predictive gravity models of livestock mobility in Mauritania: The effects of supply, demand and cultural factors. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0199547"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8339","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65132-8","article-title":"Mapping livestock movements in Sahelian Africa","volume":"10","author":"Jahel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuno, G., Mackenzie, J.S., Junglen, S., Hub\u00e1lek, Z., Plyusnin, A., and Gubler, D.J. (2017). Vertebrate reservoirs of arboviruses: Myth, synonym of amplifier, or reality?. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9070185"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-010715-023819","article-title":"Rift Valley fever: An emerging mosquito-borne disease","volume":"61","author":"Linthicum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2149\/tmh.2011-S05","article-title":"Dengue, urbanization and globalization: The unholy Trinity of the 21(st) century","volume":"39","author":"Gubler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1071\/WR14229","article-title":"Human-wildlife interactions in urban areas: A review of conflicts, benefits and opportunities","volume":"42","author":"Soulsbury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Chenal, J., Pedrazzini, Y., Cisse, G., and Kaufmann, V. (2009). Quelques rues d\u2019Afrique. Observation et Gestion de L\u2019espace Public \u00e0 Abidjan, Dakar et Nouakchott, Ecole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne, Les Editions du Lasur."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Office National de la Statistique (ONS) (2017). Monographie de la Ville de Nouakchott, Bureau Central du Recensement (BCR). Available online: https:\/\/ons.mr\/images\/RGPH2013\/Monograhie%20de%20la%20Ville%20de%20Nouakchott_Fr.pdf."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-9062.126420","article-title":"Characterization of anopheline (Diptera: Culicidae) larval habitats in Nouakchott, Mauritania","volume":"50","author":"Salem","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vector Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0243","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of Plasmodium vivax among febrile patients in Nouakchott, Mauritania","volume":"92","author":"Salem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04569-4","article-title":"Malaria prevalence in Mauritania: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Brahim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"19","article-title":"Flood risks in the city of Nouakchott (Mauritania)","volume":"31","author":"Ozer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geo-Eco-Trop"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/11\/1370\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:25:59Z","timestamp":1760131559000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/11\/1370"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12111370"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12111370","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]]}}}