{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T22:09:02Z","timestamp":1791065342124,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Schistosomiasis is a bloodborne, and waterborne parasitic disease caused by the human Schistosoma species, namely Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium. The parasite requires an intermediate snail host, where they grow and develop, along with a human host (definitive). Schistosoma egg detection in feces (S. mansoni) and urine (S. haematobium) are the WHO-recommended confirmatory diagnostic tests. The goal of our research was to determine the efficacy of detecting single or dual Schistosome species from filtered human urine samples collected in Tanzania by amplifying species-specific cell-free repeat DNA fragments via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis. In total, 104 filtered human urine samples were evaluated and collected from individuals residing in the village of Kayenze, Tanzania. All samples were detected with 100% accuracy and no cross-amplification was present. For a single infection of S. mansoni, 22 (21%) of the samples were positive, while 15 (14%) of the samples were negative via PCR. Moreover, for a single infection of S. haematobium, 7 (7%) of the samples were positive, while 15 (14%) of the samples were negative. Dual infections were found in a higher percentage, with 60 (58%) of the samples being positive. Thus, we have justified that PCR is more sensitive and specific by amplifying species-specific cell-free repeat DNA fragments from the same urine sample than WHO-recommended methods of processing stool and urine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13010059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T06:12:58Z","timestamp":1704694378000},"page":"59","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Accurate Diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium from Filtered Urine Samples Collected in Tanzania, Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Koreena","family":"Miller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53217, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javeriya","family":"Choudry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53217, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"El Shaimaa","family":"Mahmoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53217, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0363-3538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nilanjan","family":"Lodh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53217, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00090-6","article-title":"Effect of preventive chemotherapy with praziquantel on schistosomiasis among school-aged children in sub-Saharan Africa: A spatiotemporal modelling study","volume":"22","author":"Kokaliaris","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-274","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of human schistosomiasis in Tanzania","volume":"5","author":"Mazigo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020). Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021\u20132030, World Health Organization. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1179\/136485908X337490","article-title":"Application of a circulating-cathodic-antigen (CCA) strip test and real-time PCR, in comparison with microscopy, for the detection of Schistosoma haematobium in urine samples from Ghana","volume":"102","author":"Obeng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2019.e00130","article-title":"Assessment of dual schistosome infection prevalence from urine in an endemic community of Ghana by molecular diagnostic approach","volume":"9","author":"Anyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hessler, M.J., Cyrs, A., Krenzke, S.C., Mahmoud, E.S., Sikasunge, C., Mwansa, J., and Lodh, N. (2017). Detection of duo-schistosome infection from filtered urine samples from school children in Zambia after MDA. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189400"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lodh, N., Naples, J.M., Bosompem, K.M., Quartey, J., and Shiff, C.J. (2014). Detection of Parasite-Specific DNA in Urine Sediment Obtained by Filtration Differentiates between Single and Mixed Infections of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium from Endemic Areas in Ghana. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0091144"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2017.06.015","article-title":"Point of care diagnosis of multiple schistosome parasites: Species-specific DNA detection in urine by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)","volume":"173","author":"Lodh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0104","article-title":"Diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni without the stool: Comparison of three diagnostic tests to detect Schistosoma mansoni infection from filtered urine in Zambia","volume":"89","author":"Lodh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.10-0691","article-title":"Diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium by detection of specific DNA fragments from filtered urine samples","volume":"84","author":"Ibironke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.07.014","article-title":"Diagnosis of Strongyloides stercoralis: Detection of parasite-derived DNA in urine","volume":"163","author":"Lodh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-5-103","article-title":"PCR detection of Plasmodium falciparum in human urine and saliva samples","volume":"5","author":"Mharakurwa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(91)90222-R","article-title":"Highly Repeated Short DNA-Sequences In The Genome Of Schistosoma mansoni Recognized By A Species-Specific Probe","volume":"44","author":"Hamburger","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2001.65.907","article-title":"Polymerase chain reaction assay based on a highly repeated sequence of Schistosoma haematobium: A potential tool for monitoring schistosome-infested water","volume":"65","author":"Hamburger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamberton, P.H.L., Kabatereine, N.B., Oguttu, D.W., Fenwick, A., and Webster, J.P. (2014). Sensitivity and Specificity of Multiple Kato-Katz Thick Smears and a Circulating Cathodic Antigen Test for Schistosoma mansoni Diagnosis Pre- and Post-repeated-Praziquantel Treatment. PLOS Neglected Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003139"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1177\/1742395307084407","article-title":"The unacknowledged impact of chronic schistosomiasis","volume":"4","author":"King","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chronic Illn."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hotez, P.J., and Fenwick, A. (2009). Schistosomiasis in Africa: An Emerging Tragedy in Our New Global Health Decade. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000485"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.80.435","article-title":"Sensitivities and Specificities of Diagnostic Tests and Infection Prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium Estimated from Data on Adults in Villages Northwest of Accra, Ghana","volume":"80","author":"Koukounari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e328318978f","article-title":"Praziquantel: Mechanisms of action, resistance and new derivatives for schistosomiasis","volume":"21","author":"Doenhoff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2656-4","article-title":"Current epidemiological evidence for predisposition to high or low intensity human helminth infection: A systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Wright","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Booth, M., Vennervald, B.J., Butterworth, A.E., Kariuki, H.C., Amaganga, C., Kimani, G., Mwatha, J.K., Otedo, A., Ouma, J.H., and Dunne, D.W. (2004). Exposure to malaria affects the regression of hepatosplenomegaly after treatment for Schistosoma mansoni infection in Kenyan children. BMC Med., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-2-36"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(99)00013-3","article-title":"Increase of intestinal schistosomiasis after praziquantel treatment in a Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni mixed focus","volume":"73","author":"Ernould","year":"1999","journal-title":"Acta Trop."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/1\/59\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:41:51Z","timestamp":1760103711000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/1\/59"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens13010059"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens13010059","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]}}}