{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:01:33Z","timestamp":1787029293881,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,28]],"date-time":"2024-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH NIAID","award":["R21AI14523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21AI14523"]}]},{"name":"NIH NIAID","award":["W81XWH-20-1-0518"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-20-1-0518"]}]},{"name":"Department of Defense","award":["R21AI14523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21AI14523"]}]},{"name":"Department of Defense","award":["W81XWH-20-1-0518"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-20-1-0518"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Babesia microti (B. microti) is a tick-transmitted protozoan parasite that invades red blood cells. It is the primary cause of human babesiosis in the US. The severity of babesiosis caused by B. microti infection can range from asymptomatic to fatal. Risk factors for severe disease include general immune suppression, advanced age (&gt;50) and lack of a spleen. However, severe disease can occur in the absence of any known risk factors. The degree to which tick-transmitted B. microti infection confers protection from subsequent exposure is largely unexplored. This is an important question as both the prevalence and geographic range of tick-transmitted B. microti infection continues to increase and individuals in endemic regions may have multiple exposures over their lifetime. In the current study we used a mouse model to evaluate the degree to which primary infection with B. microti protected against secondary challenge with the same parasite strain. We show that CD4 T cells, and to a lesser extent B cells, contribute to protection. However, mice exhibited significant protection from secondary parasite challenge even in the absence of either CD4 T cells or B cells. The protection mediated by CD4 T cells did not depend on their production of IFN-\u03b3 as mice with a targeted gene deletion for the IFN-\u03b3 receptor remained fully protected against secondary challenge. Other factors including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the adaptor protein MyD88, important for toll-like receptors, IL-18 and IL-1 signaling, were not important for protection against primary or secondary challenge with B. microti. Thus, our study shows that resolution of primary infection with B. microti results in robust protection against secondary challenge with parasites, at least in the short term. Further studies are needed to evaluate the length of protection and the degree to which protection is impacted by parasite heterogeneity. Although we show an important role for CD4 T cells in protection against secondary challenge, our results suggest that no single aspect of the immune system is solely responsible for adequate protection against secondary challenge with B. microti.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13020123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,29]],"date-time":"2024-01-29T04:57:07Z","timestamp":1706504227000},"page":"123","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Immune Mediators Important for a Protective Secondary Response to Babesia microti"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Joseph","family":"Conti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Gagliardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4005-4412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul M.","family":"Arnaboldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Synthia J.","family":"Hale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9125-1889","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sini","family":"Skariah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali A.","family":"Sultan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha 2713, Qatar"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dana G.","family":"Mordue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2012.02.005","article-title":"Phylogeny and evolution of the Piroplasmida as inferred from 18S rRNA sequences","volume":"42","author":"Lack","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. 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