{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T15:23:39Z","timestamp":1791386619302,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":151,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,4]],"date-time":"2024-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) is a severe, rare protozoal infection of the cornea. Acanthamoeba can survive in diverse habitats and at extreme temperatures. AK is mostly seen in contact lens wearers whose lenses have become contaminated or who have a history of water exposure, and in those without contact lens wear who have experienced recent eye trauma involving contaminated soil or water. Infection usually results in severe eye pain, photophobia, inflammation, and corneal epithelial defects. The pathophysiology of this infection is multifactorial, including the production of cytotoxic proteases by Acanthamoeba that degrades the corneal epithelial basement membrane and induces the death of ocular surface cells, resulting in degradation of the collagen-rich corneal stroma. AK can be prevented by avoiding risk factors, which includes avoiding water contact, such as swimming or showering in contact lenses, and wearing protective goggles when working on the land. AK is mostly treated with an antimicrobial therapy of biguanides alone or in combination with diaminidines, although the commercial availability of these medicines is variable. Other than anti-amoeba therapies, targeting host immune pathways in Acanthamoeba disease may lead to the development of vaccines or antibody therapeutics which could transform the management of AK.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13020142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,5]],"date-time":"2024-02-05T03:28:29Z","timestamp":1707103709000},"page":"142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Epidemiology of and Genetic Factors Associated with Acanthamoeba Keratitis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4064-0590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ilyas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary & Secondary Healthcare Department, Punjab 54000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7203-5443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fiona","family":"Stapleton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3842-7563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark D. P.","family":"Willcox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5534-1019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fiona","family":"Henriquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health and Life Sciences, The University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow G72 0LH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1317-5040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hari Kumar","family":"Peguda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Binod","family":"Rayamajhee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tasbiha","family":"Zahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary & Secondary Healthcare Department, Punjab 54000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Constantinos","family":"Petsoglou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Save Sight Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole A.","family":"Carnt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"},{"name":"Centre for Vision Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(89)80010-6","article-title":"Pathogenic amoebae in natural thermal waters of three resorts of Hidalgo, Mexico","volume":"50","author":"Rivera","year":"1989","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S388","DOI":"10.1093\/clind\/13.Supplement_5.S388","article-title":"Pathogenic Acanthamoeba isolated during an atmospheric survey in Mexico City","volume":"13","author":"Rivera","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/S0932-4739(11)80203-8","article-title":"Acanthamoeba from human nasal mucosa infected with an obligate intracellular parasite","volume":"30","author":"Michel","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eur. J. Protistol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-016-4927-3","article-title":"Genotypic, physiological, and biochemical characterization of potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba isolated from the environment in Cairo, Egypt","volume":"115","author":"Tawfeek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.01.046","article-title":"Detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in water samples collected from natural water reservoirs, sewages, and pharmaceutical factory drains using LAMP and PCR in China","volume":"584","author":"Lass","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.13065","article-title":"Prevalence and seasonal variation of Acanthamoeba in domestic tap water in greater Sydney, Australia","volume":"103","author":"Carnt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182020000487","article-title":"Free-living amoebae and their relationship to air quality in hospital environments: Characterization of Acanthamoeba spp. obtained from air-conditioning systems","volume":"147","author":"Wopereis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2020.108008","article-title":"Nanoparticles based therapeutic efficacy against Acanthamoeba: Updates and future prospect","volume":"218","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S43471","article-title":"Results of case-control studies support the association between contact lens use and Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"7","author":"Pacella","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Nwachuku, N., and Gerba, C.P. (2003). Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Springer."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(74)90285-2","article-title":"Amoebic infection of the eye","volume":"304","author":"Nagington","year":"1974","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2008.04.038","article-title":"Prognostic factors affecting visual outcome in Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"115","author":"Tu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2018-312544","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: Confirmation of the UK outbreak and a prospective case-control study identifying contributing risk factors","volume":"102","author":"Carnt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(99)80047-1","article-title":"The pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"1","author":"Niederkorn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12271","article-title":"Strategies for the prevention of contact lens-related Acanthamoeba keratitis: A review","volume":"36","author":"Carnt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-017-5745-y","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis in Porto Alegre (southern Brazil): 28 cases and risk factors","volume":"117","author":"Kwitko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6819a6","article-title":"Notes from the field: Acanthamoeba keratitis cases\u2014Iowa, 2002\u20132017","volume":"68","author":"Scruggs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carnt, N.A., Subedi, D., Connor, S., and Kilvington, S. (2020). The relationship between environmental sources and the susceptibility of Acanthamoeba keratitis in the United Kingdom. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0229681"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2149\/tmh.2014-15","article-title":"Isolation of Acanthamoeba genotype T4 from a non-contact lens wearer from the Philippines","volume":"42","author":"Buerano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"670242","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: A 12-year experience covering a wide spectrum of presentations, diagnoses, and outcomes","volume":"2013","author":"Page","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Ophtalmol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1097\/ICL.0b013e3181db3508","article-title":"Bilateral Acanthamoeba keratitis in Synergeyes contact lens wear: Clinical and confocal microscopy findings","volume":"36","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens Sci. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1097\/01.icl.0000252567.06446.7b","article-title":"Bilateral Acanthamoeba keratitis in an experienced two-weekly disposable contact lens wearer","volume":"33","author":"Voyatzis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens Sci. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2007.00172.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis and contact lens wear","volume":"90","author":"Lindsay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2013.01.006","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: An emerging disease gathering importance worldwide?","volume":"29","author":"Valladares","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2023.03.020","article-title":"The global epidemiology and clinical diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-199801000-00001","article-title":"The epidemic of Acanthamoeba keratitis: Where do we stand?","volume":"17","author":"Schaumberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6432a2","article-title":"Contact lens wearer demographics and risk behaviors for contact lens-related eye infections\u2014United States, 2014","volume":"64","author":"Cope","year":"2015","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14337","article-title":"Increasing incidence of Acanthamoeba keratitis in a large tertiary ophthalmology department from year 1994 to 2018","volume":"98","author":"Nielsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Randag, A.C., Van Rooij, J., Van Goor, A.T., Verkerk, S., Wisse, R.P., Saelens, I.E., Stoutenbeek, R., van Dooren, B.T., Cheng, Y.Y., and Eggink, C.A. (2019). The rising incidence of Acanthamoeba keratitis: A 7-year nationwide survey and clinical assessment of risk factors and functional outcomes. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0222092"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-303386","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: Study of the 5-year incidence in Israel","volume":"97","author":"Graffi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"169","article-title":"The association of contact lens solution use and Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"144","author":"Joslin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3109\/09286586.2012.681336","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: The persistence of cases following a multistate outbreak","volume":"19","author":"Yoder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2014.06.007","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: A new normal","volume":"158","author":"Tu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-019-0589-6","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis in Australia: Demographics, associated factors, presentation and outcomes: A 15-year case review","volume":"34","author":"Keay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"557","article-title":"Morphologie de la paroikystique et taxonomie du genre Acanthamoeba (Protozoa, Amoebida)","volume":"13","author":"Pussard","year":"1977","journal-title":"Protistologica"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Jiang, L., Zhao, Y., Ju, X., Wang, L., Jin, L., Fine, R.D., and Li, M. (2023). Biological characteristics and pathogenicity of Acanthamoeba. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1147077"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S21","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2009.47.S.S21","article-title":"Molecular phylogeny of Acanthamoeba","volume":"47","author":"Kong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-06843-9","article-title":"Update on Acanthamoeba phylogeny","volume":"119","author":"Corsaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12752","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: A review of biology, pathophysiology and epidemiology","volume":"41","author":"Lira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2014.12.012","article-title":"Does energy efficiency matter to home-buyers? An investigation of EPC ratings and transaction prices in England","volume":"48","author":"Fuerst","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2006.00023.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba: Biology and increasing importance in human health","volume":"30","author":"Khan","year":"2006","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-10182013000200005","article-title":"Acanthamoeba spp. como par\u00e1sitos pat\u00f3genos y oportunistas","volume":"30","author":"Orozco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Infectol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuerst, P.A., and Booton, G.C. (2020). Species, sequence types and alleles: Dissecting genetic variation in Acanthamoeba. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9070534"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1996.tb04510.x","article-title":"Subgenus systematics of Acanthamoeba: Four nuclear 18S rDNA sequence types","volume":"43","author":"Gast","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2017.09.013","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis in noncompliant soft contact lenses users: Genotyping and risk factors, a study from Cairo, Egypt","volume":"11","author":"Taher","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.45970-0","article-title":"Acanthamoeba genotype T4 from the UK and Iran and isolation of the T2 genotype from clinical isolates","volume":"54","author":"Maghsood","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-015-4445-8","article-title":"Acanthamoeba misidentification and multiple labels: Redefining genotypes T16, T19, and T20 and proposal for Acanthamoeba micheli sp. nov.(genotype T19)","volume":"114","author":"Corsaro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/jeu.12186","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis and the evolution of the 18S rRNA gene typing system of Acanthamoeba","volume":"62","author":"Fuerst","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4408","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.66.10.4408-4413.2000","article-title":"Correlations between morphological, molecular biological, and physiological characteristics in clinical and nonclinical isolates of Acanthamoeba spp.","volume":"66","author":"Walochnik","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes, T.d.S., Magnet, A., Izquierdo, F., Vaccaro, L., Redondo, F., Bueno, S., S\u00e1nchez, M.L., Angulo, S., Fenoy, S., and Hurtado, C. (2016). Acanthamoeba spp. in contact lenses from healthy individuals from Madrid, Spain. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0154246"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/jeu.12149","article-title":"Twenty years of Acanthamoeba diagnostics in Austria","volume":"62","author":"Walochnik","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2017.06.031","article-title":"Molecular and morphological characterization of Acanthamoeba isolated from corneal scrapes and contact lens wearers in Argentina","volume":"54","author":"Casero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02365-08","article-title":"Molecular identification of T4 and T5 genotypes in isolates from Acanthamoeba keratitis patients","volume":"47","author":"Ledee","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejop.2012.11.004","article-title":"A systematic analysis of Acanthamoeba genotype frequency correlated with source and pathogenicity: T4 is confirmed as a pathogen-rich genotype","volume":"49","author":"Maciver","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Protistol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-008-0682-4","article-title":"Acanthamoeba T4 and T15 genotypes associated with keratitis infections in Italy","volume":"28","author":"Monno","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001121","article-title":"Clinical presentations, genotypic diversity and phylogenetic analysis of Acanthamoeba species causing keratitis","volume":"69","author":"Rajapandian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otero-Ruiz, A., Gonzalez-Zu\u00f1iga, L.D., Rodriguez-Anaya, L.Z., Lares-Jim\u00e9nez, L.F., Gonzalez-Galaviz, J.R., and Lares-Villa, F. (2022). Distribution and current state of molecular genetic characterization in pathogenic free-living amoebae. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202209.0238.v1"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1050950108","article-title":"Hartmannella astronyxis: A new species of free-living ameba. Cytology and life cycle","volume":"95","author":"Ray","year":"1954","journal-title":"J. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"587","article-title":"Acanthamoeba comandoni n. sp., comparaison avec A. terricola","volume":"1","author":"Pussard","year":"1964","journal-title":"Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.2307\/3225905","article-title":"Acanthamoeba tubiashi n. sp., a new species of fresh-water Amoebida (Acanthamoebidae)","volume":"98","author":"Lewis","year":"1979","journal-title":"Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/jeu.12069","article-title":"Characterization of a new pathogenic Acanthamoeba species, A. byersi n. sp., isolated from a human with fatal amoebic encephalitis","volume":"60","author":"Qvarnstrom","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"59","article-title":"Notes on the classification of the amoeba found by Castellani in cultures of a yeast-like fungus","volume":"33","author":"Douglas","year":"1930","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"565","article-title":"Cytologie d\u2019une Amibe terricola: Acanthamoeba terricola n. sp.","volume":"6","author":"Pussard","year":"1964","journal-title":"Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01787.x","article-title":"Beschreibung einiger kulturam\u00f6ben mariner herkunft","volume":"11","author":"Schmoller","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1967.tb02066.x","article-title":"Re-definition of the genus Acanthamoeba with descriptions of three species","volume":"14","author":"Page","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1971.tb03391.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba griffini, a new species of marine amoeba","volume":"18","author":"Sawyer","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1970.0063","article-title":"Studies on pathogenic and non-pathogenic small free-living amoebae and the bearing of nuclear division on the classification of the order Amoebida","volume":"259","author":"Singh","year":"1970","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1126\/science.867031","article-title":"Pathogenic amoebas from brackish and ocean sediments, with a description of Acanthamoeba hatchetti, n. sp.","volume":"196","author":"Sawyer","year":"1977","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1993.tb04469.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba stevensoni N. Sp.(Protozoa: Amoebida) from Sewage-Contaminated Shellfish Beds in Raritan Bay, New York","volume":"40","author":"Sawyer","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1995.tb01619.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba pearcei n. sp. (Protozoa: Amoebida) from sewage contaminated sediments","volume":"42","author":"Nerad","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tice, A.K., Shadwick, L.L., Fiore-Donno, A.M., Geisen, S., Kang, S., Schuler, G.A., Spiegel, F.W., Wilkinson, K.A., Bonkowski, M., and Dumack, K. (2016). Expansion of the molecular and morphological diversity of Acanthamoebidae (Centramoebida, Amoebozoa) and identification of a novel life cycle type within the group. Biol. Direct, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13062-016-0171-0"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Reich, K. (1933). Studien \u00fcber die Bodenprotozoen Pal\u00e4stinas, G. Fischer."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1978.tb03854.x","article-title":"Taxonomy Acanthamoeba royreba sp. n. from a Human Tumor Cell Culture","volume":"25","author":"Willaert","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"571","article-title":"Description d\u2019Une Amibe d\u2019Eau Douce: Acanthamoeba lenticulata, sp. nov. (Amoebida)","volume":"12","author":"Molet","year":"1976","journal-title":"Protistologica."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1992.tb04853.x","article-title":"Acanthamoeba healyi n. sp. and the isoenzyme and immunoblot profiles of Acanthamoeba spp., groups 1 and 3","volume":"39","author":"Moura","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"223","article-title":"Acanthamoeba jacobsi sp. n.(Protozoa: Acanthamoebidae) from sewage contaminated ocean sediments","volume":"59","author":"Sawyer","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Helminthol. Soc. Wash."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2003.41.4.181","article-title":"Acanthamoeba sohi, n. sp., a pathogenic Korean isolate YM-4 from a freshwater fish","volume":"41","author":"Im","year":"2003","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17290","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-96690-0","article-title":"Analysis of Acanthamoeba genotypes from public freshwater sources in Thailand reveals a new genotype, T23 Acanthamoeba bangkokensis sp. nov","volume":"11","author":"Putaporntip","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fanselow, N., Sirajuddin, N., Yin, X.-T., Huang, A.J., and Stuart, P.M. (2021). Acanthamoeba keratitis, pathology, diagnosis and treatment. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10030323"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-6","article-title":"Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba","volume":"5","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.97.2.317","article-title":"Acanthamoeba discriminates internally between digestible and indigestible particles","volume":"97","author":"Bowers","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.16.2.273-307.2003","article-title":"Acanthamoeba spp. as agents of disease in humans","volume":"16","author":"Cabral","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"e00790-17","article-title":"The brief case: A \u201cfresh\u201d pair of contact lenses","volume":"56","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1097\/ICL.0000000000000024","article-title":"Silicone hydrogel contact lenses surface promote Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites adherence: Qualitative and quantitative analysis","volume":"40","author":"Lens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.mi.30.100176.001201","article-title":"Differentiation in Acanthamoeba castellanii","volume":"30","author":"Weisman","year":"1976","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4045","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01903-08","article-title":"Survival of Acanthamoeba cysts after desiccation for more than 20 years","volume":"46","author":"Sriram","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04684.x","article-title":"Rapid growth of Acanthamoeba in defined media; induction of encystment by glucose-acetate starvation","volume":"27","author":"Byers","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"106","article-title":"The duration of the cyst stage and the viability and virulence of Acanthamoeba isolates","volume":"46","author":"Mazur","year":"1995","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasitol. Off. Organ Dtsch. Tropenmedizinische Ges. Dtsch. Ges. Tech. Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfo.2014.05.004","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"37","author":"Bouheraoua","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Fr. Ophtalmol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00410.x","article-title":"Encystation in Acanthamoeba castellanii: Development of Biocide Resistance 1","volume":"48","author":"Lloyd","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2000.01176.x","article-title":"Microbial differentiation and changes in susceptibility to antimicrobial agents","volume":"89","author":"Turner","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"45","article-title":"Histopathologic evaluation of stromal inflammation in Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"20","author":"Kremer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.1993.116","article-title":"Acanthamoeba trophozoite and cyst adherence to four types of soft contact lens and removal by cleaning agents","volume":"7","author":"Kilvington","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"658","article-title":"Adherence of Acanthamoeba castellanii cysts and trophozoites to unworn soft contact lenses","volume":"108","author":"John","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2020.108365","article-title":"The biology of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"202","author":"Niederkorn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-016-5338-1","article-title":"In vivo CNS infection model of Acanthamoeba genotype T4: The early stages of infection lack presence of host inflammatory response and are a slow and contact-dependent process","volume":"116","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huth, S., Reverey, J.F., Leippe, M., and Selhuber-Unkel, C. (2017). Adhesion forces and mechanics in mannose-mediated acanthamoeba interactions. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0176207"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2012.50.4.365","article-title":"Effects of mannose on pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba castellanii","volume":"50","author":"Yoo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2023.108630","article-title":"The gene expression and proteomic profiling of Acanthamoeba isolates","volume":"255","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2011.49.1.1","article-title":"Phospholipase activities in clinical and environmental isolates of Acanthamoeba","volume":"49","author":"Matin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2015010","article-title":"An update on Acanthamoeba keratitis: Diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"22","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"3061","article-title":"Neuraminidase activity in acanthamoeba species trophozoites and cysts","volume":"32","author":"Pellegrin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/S1542-0124(12)70071-X","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"8","author":"Panjwani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0010-2018","article-title":"The first Acanthamoeba keratitis case in the Midwest region of Brazil: Diagnosis, genotyping of the parasite and disease outcome","volume":"51","author":"Alves","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1139\/w05-114","article-title":"Protease activities of Acanthamoeba polyphaga and Acanthamoeba castellanii","volume":"52","author":"Tsutsumi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06562-w","article-title":"Extracellular protease profile of Acanthamoeba after prolonged axenic culture and after interaction with MDCK cells","volume":"119","author":"Cirelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2012.07.008","article-title":"Cysteine protease involving in autophagosomal degradation of mitochondria during encystation of Acanthamoeba","volume":"185","author":"Moon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2018.56.5.409","article-title":"Molecular and biochemical properties of a cysteine protease of Acanthamoeba castellanii","volume":"56","author":"Hong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1111\/jeu.12215","article-title":"Acanthamoeba castellanii proteases are capable of degrading iron-binding proteins as a possible mechanism of pathogenicity","volume":"62","author":"Shibayama","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141anocha-Arendarczyk, N., Baranowska-Bosiacka, I., Gutowska, I., Kolasa-Wo\u0142osiuk, A., Kot, K., \u0141anocha, A., Metryka, E., Wiszniewska, B., Chlubek, D., and Kosik-Bogacka, D. (2018). The activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2, MMP-9) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMP-1, TIMP-3) in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in experimental acanthamoebiasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19124128"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sissons, J., Alsam, S., Goldsworthy, G., Lightfoot, M., Jarroll, E.L., and Khan, N.A. (2006). Identification and properties of proteases from an Acanthamoeba isolate capable of producing granulomatous encephalitis. BMC Microbiol., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-6-42"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"1271","article-title":"The role of macrophages in Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"37","author":"Taylor","year":"1996","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1998.tb05099.x","article-title":"The interaction of Acanthamoeba spp. with activated macrophages and with macrophage cell lines","volume":"45","author":"Toney","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2003)089[0565:TIOACC]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The interaction of Acanthamoeba castellanii cysts with macrophages and neutrophils","volume":"89","author":"Hurt","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(94)90129-5","article-title":"Antibody-dependent neutrophil-mediated killing of Acanthamoeba castellanii","volume":"24","author":"Stewart","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2472","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.05-0140","article-title":"Failure of Acanthamoeba castellanii to produce intraocular infections","volume":"46","author":"Clarke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01054-16","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01054-16","article-title":"Acanthamoeba activates macrophages predominantly through Toll-like receptor 4-and MyD88-dependent mechanisms to induce interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-6","volume":"85","author":"Cano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001238","article-title":"Tear cytokine levels in contact lens wearers with acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"36","author":"Carnt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.3.33","article-title":"Innate and adaptive gene single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with susceptibility of severe inflammatory complications in Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"62","author":"Carnt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-200108000-00013","article-title":"Tear IgA and serum IgG antibodies against Acanthamoeba in patients with Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"20","author":"Alizadeh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.23154","article-title":"A rabbit model of Acanthamoeba keratitis that better reflects the natural human infection","volume":"298","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anat. Rec. Adv. Integr. Anat. Evol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2010.05.002","article-title":"Binding to complement factors and activation of the alternative pathway by Acanthamoeba","volume":"216","author":"Pumidonming","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-199503000-00012","article-title":"Successful immunization against Acanthamoeba keratitis in a pig model","volume":"14","author":"Alizadeh","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2000)086[0012:PACOAS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Purification and characterization of a secretory serine proteinase of Acanthamoeba healyi isolated from GAE","volume":"86","author":"Kong","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1097\/ICL.0b013e318157e8be","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis and contact lens wear: Static or increasing problem?","volume":"33","author":"Foulks","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Neelam, S., and Niederkorn, J.Y. (2017). Focus: Infectious diseases: Pathobiology and immunobiology of Acanthamoeba keratitis: Insights from animal models. Yale J. Biol. Med., 90."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(14)74321-1","article-title":"Immunopathology and electron microscopy of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"103","author":"Mathers","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2005.12.009","article-title":"The immunobiology of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"8","author":"Clarke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.3109\/09273949709085064","article-title":"Systemic immune response to Acanthamoeba keratitis in the Chinese hamster","volume":"5","author":"Klink","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06332-8","article-title":"Identification and characterization of a secreted M28 aminopeptidase protein in Acanthamoeba","volume":"118","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Betanzos, A., Ba\u00f1uelos, C., and Orozco, E. (2019). Host invasion by pathogenic amoebae: Epithelial disruption by parasite proteins. Genes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes10080618"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12918","article-title":"Tear film, contact lenses and tear biomarkers","volume":"102","author":"Willcox","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"285","article-title":"Occurrence of The Pathogenic Amoeba Naegleria fowleri, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment Options","volume":"17","author":"Ismail","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malays. J. Med. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humpath.2012.10.007","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis: A clinicopathologic case report and review of the literature","volume":"44","author":"Knickelbein","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1586\/17469899.3.6.665","article-title":"Innate and adaptive immune responses to ocular Acanthamoeba infections","volume":"3","author":"Niederkorn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.2002.2015","article-title":"Adaptive immune responses to Acanthamoeba cysts","volume":"75","author":"McClellan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.01.031","article-title":"Association of single nucleotide polymorphisms of interleukins-1\u03b2,-6, and-12B with contact lens keratitis susceptibility and severity","volume":"119","author":"Carnt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.05.020","article-title":"Immune defense single nucleotide polymorphisms and recruitment strategies associated with contact lens keratitis","volume":"119","author":"Carnt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clae.2019.06.007","article-title":"Association study of single nucleotide polymorphisms in IL-10 and IL-17 genes with the severity of microbial keratitis","volume":"42","author":"Carnt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Contact Lens Anterior Eye"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Megha, K., Sharma, M., Gupta, A., Sehgal, R., and Khurana, S. (2021). Microbiological diagnosis of Acanthamoebic keratitis: Experience from tertiary care center of North India. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 100.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2021.115339"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joco.2018.09.008","article-title":"Acanthamoeba keratitis\u2014Clinical signs, differential diagnosis and treatment","volume":"31","author":"Daas","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Curr. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-316730","article-title":"PCR and culture for diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"105","author":"Yera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001497","article-title":"Comparison of in vivo confocal microscopy, PCR and culture of corneal scrapes in the diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"37","author":"Goh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.4.915-922.1997","article-title":"Comparison of axenic and monoxenic media for isolation of Acanthamoeba","volume":"35","author":"Penland","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-018-0958-3","article-title":"Effectiveness of sampling methods employed for Acanthamoeba keratitis diagnosis by culture","volume":"39","author":"Rodrigo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(03)00322-2","article-title":"Evaluation of hematoxylin and eosin and special stains for the detection of acanthamoeba keratitis in penetrating keratoplasties","volume":"136","author":"Grossniklaus","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001507","article-title":"Factors influencing the diagnostic accuracy of laser-scanning in vivo confocal microscopy for Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"37","author":"Kheirkhah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2017.08.037","article-title":"Assessment of confocal microscopy for the diagnosis of polymerase chain reaction\u2013positive Acanthamoeba keratitis: A case-control study","volume":"125","author":"Knoeri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjopt.2019.09.002","article-title":"Challenges in the diagnosis of microbial keratitis: A detailed review with update and general guidelines","volume":"33","author":"Alkatan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saudi J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-019-0482-3","article-title":"Clinical features and serial changes of Acanthamoeba keratitis: An in vivo confocal microscopy study","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"1261","article-title":"Polymerase chain reaction analysis of corneal epithelial and tear samples in the diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"39","author":"Lehmann","year":"1998","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/2\/142\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:54:45Z","timestamp":1760104485000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/2\/142"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,4]]},"references-count":151,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens13020142"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens13020142","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,4]]}}}