{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T06:25:06Z","timestamp":1790922306879,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Data from systematic reviews and meta-analyses show that probiotics positively impact clinical parameters of oral diseases such as gingivitis, dental caries, and periodontitis. However, the working mechanism of probiotics is not fully understood, but is hypothesized to be mediated by direct and indirect interactions with the oral microbiota and the human host. In the present narrative review, we focused on the microbiological effect of probiotic supplements based on data retrieved from randomized clinical trials (RCTs). In addition, we assessed to what extent contemporary molecular methods have been employed in clinical trials in the field of oral probiotics. Multiple RCTs have been performed studying the potential effect of probiotics on gingivitis, dental caries, and periodontitis, as evaluated by microbial endpoints. In general, results are conflicting, with some studies reporting a positive effect, whereas others are not able to record any effect. Major differences in terms of study designs and sample size, as well as delivery route, frequency, and duration of probiotic consumption, hamper comparison across studies. In addition, most RCTs have been performed with a limited sample size using relatively simple methods for microbial identification, such as culturing, qPCR, and DNA\u2013DNA checkerboard, while high-throughput methods such as 16S sequencing have only been employed in a few studies. Currently, state-of-the-art molecular methods such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metaproteomics have not yet been used in RCTs in the field of probiotics. The present narrative review revealed that the effect of probiotic supplements on the oral microbiota remains largely uncovered. One important reason is that most RCTs are performed without studying the microbiological effect. To facilitate future systematic reviews and meta-analyses, an internationally agreed core outcome set for the reporting of microbial endpoints in clinical trials would be desirable. Such a standardized collection of outcomes would most likely improve the quality of probiotic research in the oral context.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13050419","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]],"date-time":"2024-05-16T09:30:03Z","timestamp":1715851803000},"page":"419","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Effect of Probiotic Supplements on the Oral Microbiota\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1056-7022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christine","family":"Lundtorp-Olsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Odontology, Section for Clinical Oral Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9524-9233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Merete","family":"Markvart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Odontology, Section for Clinical Oral Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0199-9210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svante","family":"Twetman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Odontology, Section for Clinical Oral Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Belstr\u00f8m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Odontology, Section for Clinical Oral Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S12","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.12679","article-title":"Dental biofilm: Ecological interactions in health and disease","volume":"44","author":"Marsh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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