{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T21:15:20Z","timestamp":1792012520229,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individuals with certain primary immunodeficiency disorders (PID) may be unable to clear poliovirus infection after exposure to oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). Over time, vaccine-related strains can revert to immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPVs) that can cause paralysis in the patient and potentially spread in communities with low immunity. We reviewed the efforts for detection and management of PID patients with iVDPV infections and the epidemiology through an analysis of 184 cases reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) during 1962\u20132024 and a review of polio program and literature reports. Most iVDPV patients (79%) reported in the WHO Registry were residents in middle-income countries and almost half (48%) in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Type 2 iVDPV was most frequently isolated (53%), but a sharp decline was observed after the switch to bivalent OPV in 2016, with only six cases reported during 2017\u20132024 compared to 63 during 2009\u20132016. Patients with common variable immunodeficiency have longer excretion of iVDPV than with other PID types. Implementation of sensitive sentinel surveillance to detect cases of iVDPV infection in high-risk countries and offer antiviral treatment to patients is challenged by competition with other health priorities and regulatory hurdles to the compassionate use of investigational antiviral drugs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13121128","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T06:44:33Z","timestamp":1734677073000},"page":"1128","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Immunodeficiency-Related Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus (iVDPV) Infections: A Review of Epidemiology and Progress in Detection and Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Concepcion F.","family":"Estivariz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0675-4287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabeth R.","family":"Krow-Lucal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30033, USA"},{"name":"World Health Organization Headquarters, Av Appia 10, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ondrej","family":"Mach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization Headquarters, Av Appia 10, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2022, November 20). List of Wild Poliovirus by Country and Year. Available online: http:\/\/polioeradication.org\/polio-today\/polio-now\/wild-poliovirus-list."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Orenstein, W.A., Offit, P.A., Edwards, K.M., and Plotkin, S.A. (2023). Poliovirus Vaccine\u2014Live. Vaccines, Elsevier. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurstak, E. (1993). Inactivated and live, attenuated poliovirus vaccines: Mucosal immunity. Measles and Poliomyelitis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-9278-8"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2006.02.007","article-title":"Vaccine-derived polioviruses","volume":"34","author":"Agol","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S283","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu295","article-title":"Vaccine-derived polioviruses","volume":"210","author":"Burns","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"16","article-title":"Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses: Current state of knowledge","volume":"82","author":"Kew","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.292.14.1696","article-title":"Vaccine policy changes and epidemiology of poliomyelitis in the United States","volume":"292","author":"Alexander","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S380","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu184","article-title":"Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis: A review of the epidemiology and estimation of the global burden","volume":"210","author":"Platt","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1086\/525049","article-title":"A large vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreak on Madura Island\u2013Indonesia, 2005","volume":"197","author":"Estivariz","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0803259","article-title":"Effectiveness of immunization against paralytic poliomyelitis in Nigeria","volume":"359","author":"Jenkins","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2018, June 05). Responding to a Poliovirus Event or Outbreak Part 2: Protocol for Poliovirus Type 2 (V 2.4). Geneva: World Health Organization., Available online: https:\/\/terrance.who.int\/mediacentre\/data\/sage\/SAGE_Docs_Ppt_April2018\/4_session_polio\/April2018_session4_poliovirus_event_procedure_SOP.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2024, December 12). Polio Eradication & Endgame Strategic Plan 2013\u20132018. WHO\/POLIO\/13.02. Geneva, Switzerland., Available online: https:\/\/www.archive.polioeradication.org\/who-we-are\/strategic-plan-2013-2018\/."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"426","article-title":"Vaccine-Associated Paralytic Poliomyelitis Among Immunodeficient Persons","volume":"11","author":"Sutter","year":"1994","journal-title":"Infect. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duintjer Tebbens, R.J., Pallansch, M.A., and Thompson, K.M. (2015). Modeling the prevalence of immunodeficiency-associated long-term vaccine-derived poliovirus excretors and the potential benefits of antiviral drugs. BMC Infect. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-1115-5"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macklin, G., Liao, Y., Takane, M., Dooling, K., Gilmour, S., Mach, O., Kew, O.M., Sutter, R.W., and The iVDPV Working Group (2017). Prolonged Excretion of Poliovirus among Individuals with Primary Immunodeficiency Disorder: An Analysis of the World Health Organization Registry. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01103"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.02.059","article-title":"New insights into physiopathology of immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus infection; systematic review of over 5 decades of data","volume":"36","author":"Shaghaghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2004). Department of Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. Polio laboratory Manual, World Health Organization. [4th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.medbox.org\/document\/polio-laboratory-manual."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4429","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02354-07","article-title":"Calibration of multiple poliovirus molecular clocks covering an extended evolutionary range","volume":"82","author":"Jorba","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1954.02950010023009","article-title":"Evaluation of Red Cross gamma globulin as a prophylactic agent for poliomyelitis. 5. Reanalysis of results based on laboratory-confirmed cases","volume":"156","author":"Hammon","year":"1954","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5988","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.10.5988-5995.2005","article-title":"Virus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell responses and long-term T-cell memory in individuals vaccinated against polio","volume":"79","author":"Wahid","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"265","article-title":"Comparison of the resistance of the intestinal tract ot poliomyelitis virus (Sabin\u2019s strains) in persons after naturally and experimentally acquired immunity","volume":"5","author":"Ghendon","year":"1961","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S176","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/175.Supplement_1.S176","article-title":"Duration of poliovirus excretion and its implications for acute flaccid paralysis surveillance: A review of the literature","volume":"175","author":"Alexander","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/163.1.1","article-title":"Mucosal immunity induced by enhanced-potency inactivated and oral polio vaccines","volume":"163","author":"Onorato","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S361","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/6.Supplement_2.S361","article-title":"Mucosal immune response to poliovirus vaccines in childhood","volume":"6","author":"Ogra","year":"1984","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1086\/315684","article-title":"Poliovirus-Specific Intestinal Antibody Responses Coincide with Decline of Poliovirus Excretion","volume":"182","author":"Valtanen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/2.3.352","article-title":"Viral vaccination via the mucosal routes","volume":"2","author":"Ogra","year":"1980","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"973","article-title":"Interrupting the transmission of wild polioviruses with vaccines: Immunological considerations","volume":"72","author":"Ghendon","year":"1994","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1086\/427810","article-title":"Poliovirus-specific memory immunity in seronegative elderly people does not protect against virus excretion","volume":"191","author":"Abbink","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/168.2.452","article-title":"Long-term immunity to poliovirus in children immunized with live attenuated and enhanced-potency inactivated trivalent poliovirus vaccines","volume":"168","author":"Faden","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq320","article-title":"From emergence to eradication: The epidemiology of poliomyelitis deconstructed","volume":"172","author":"Nathanson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1993.1003","article-title":"Genetic basis of attenuation of the Sabin type 2 vaccine strain of poliovirus in primates","volume":"192","author":"Macadam","year":"1993","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7758","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.71.10.7758-7768.1997","article-title":"Evolution of the Sabin type 1 poliovirus in humans: Characterization of strains isolated from patients with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis","volume":"71","author":"Georgescu","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2021, April 04). Classification and Reporting of Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses (VDPVs). Available online: http:\/\/polioeradication.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Reporting-and-Classification-of-VDPVs_Aug2016_EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-022-01289-3","article-title":"Human Inborn Errors of Immunity: 2022 Update on the Classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee","volume":"42","author":"Tangye","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2020.1801422","article-title":"Global systematic review of primary immunodeficiency registries","volume":"16","author":"Abolhassani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-385991-4.00002-7","article-title":"\u201cA Rose is a Rose is a Rose,\u201d but CVID is Not CVID","volume":"111","author":"Yong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199508173330707","article-title":"The primary immunodeficiencies","volume":"333","author":"Rosen","year":"1995","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"72","article-title":"Hypogammaglobulinaemia in the United Kingdom. VII. The role of humoral antibodies in protection against and recovery from bacterial and virus infections in hypogammaglobulinaemia","volume":"310","author":"MacCallum","year":"1971","journal-title":"Spec. Rep. Ser. Med. Res. Counc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2006.02.005","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliovirus from long term excretors and the end game of polio eradication","volume":"34","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30408","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2016.21.47.30408","article-title":"Prolonged excretion of type-2 poliovirus from a primary immune deficient patient during the transition to a type-2 poliovirus-free world, Israel, 2016","volume":"21","author":"Weil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9179","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00468-08","article-title":"Changes in population dynamics during long-term evolution of sabin type 1 poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient","volume":"82","author":"Odoom","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12623","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.12623-12634.2005","article-title":"Intratypic recombination among lineages of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus emerging during chronic infection of an immunodeficient patient","volume":"79","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2893","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.10.2893-2899.1998","article-title":"Prolonged replication of a type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient","volume":"36","author":"Kew","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00917895","article-title":"Inadequacy of mucosal IgM antibodies in selective IgA deficiency: Excretion of attenuated polio viruses is prolonged","volume":"8","author":"Savilahti","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"3","article-title":"Search for poliovirus carriers among people with primary immune deficiency diseases in the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and the United Kingdom","volume":"82","author":"Halsey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2006.03.002","article-title":"Poliovirus excretion in Guatemalan adults and children with HIV infection and children with cancer","volume":"34","author":"Asturias","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1086\/498166","article-title":"Poliovirus vaccine shedding among persons with HIV in Abidjan, Cote d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"192","author":"Hennessey","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2005.08.011","article-title":"Poliovirus vaccine strains detected in stool specimens of immunodeficient children in South Africa","volume":"54","author":"Pavlov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(06)80007-7","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of bacille Calmette-Guerin, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis, and oral polio vaccines in newborn children in Zaire infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1","volume":"122","author":"Ryder","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aghamohammadi, A., Abolhassani, H., Kutukculer, N., Wassilak, S.G., Pallansch, M.A., Kluglein, S., Quinn, J., Sutter, R.W., Wang, X., and Sanal, O. (2017). Patients with Primary Immunodeficiencies Are a Reservoir of Poliovirus and a Risk to Polio Eradication. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00685"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1000331","article-title":"Poliovirus excretion among persons with Primary Immune Deficiency disorders: Summary of data from enhanced poliovirus surveillance in Egypt, 2011\u20132014","volume":"7","author":"Mach","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vaccines Vaccin."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007697421114","article-title":"Surveillance of acute flaccid paralysis in Italy: 1996\u20131997. AFP Study Group. Acute flaccid paralysis","volume":"15","author":"Fiore","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galal, N.M., Meshaal, S., ElHawary, R., Nasr, E., Bassiouni, L., Ashghar, H., Farag, N.H., Mach, O., Burns, C., and Iber, J. (2018). Poliovirus excretion following vaccination with live poliovirus vaccine in patients with primary immunodeficiency disorders: Clinicians\u2019 perspectives in the endgame plan for polio eradication. BMC Res. Notes, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-018-3822-7"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S368","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu065","article-title":"Poliovirus excretion among persons with primary immune deficiency disorders: Summary of a seven-country study series","volume":"210","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2310.170724","article-title":"Poliovirus Excretion in Children with Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders, India","volume":"23","author":"Mohanty","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohanty, M.C., Desai, M., Mohammad, A., Aggarwal, A., Govindaraj, G., Bhattad, S., Lashkari, H.P., Rajasekhar, L., Verma, H., and Kumar, A. (2023). Assessment of Enterovirus Excretion and Identification of VDPVs in Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency in India: Outcome of ICMR-WHO Collaborative Study Phase-I. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11071211"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.3.1203-1211.2003","article-title":"Community-acquired poliovirus infection in children with primary immunodeficiencies in Tunisia","volume":"41","author":"Triki","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1684","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00293-12","article-title":"High susceptibility for enterovirus infection and virus excretion features in Tunisian patients with primary immunodeficiencies","volume":"19","author":"Driss","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.2372","article-title":"Isolation of poliovirus shedding following vaccination in children with antibody deficiency disorders","volume":"6","author":"Galal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.10.035","article-title":"Prevalence of prolonged and chronic poliovirus excretion among persons with primary immune deficiency disorders in Sri Lanka","volume":"30","author":"Gunasena","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.1086\/379791","article-title":"Persistence of vaccine-derived polioviruses among immunodeficient persons with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis","volume":"188","author":"Khetsuriani","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997). Prolonged poliovirus excretion in an immunodeficient person with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 46, 641\u2013643."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006). Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 55, 1093\u20131097."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.0003","article-title":"Evolution of poliovirus type I during 5.5 years of prolonged enteral replication in an immunodeficient patient","volume":"265","author":"Bellmunt","year":"1999","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1108814","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliomyelitis 12 years after infection","volume":"365","author":"MacLennan","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bermingham, W.H., Canning, B., Wilton, T., Kidd, M., Klapsa, D., Majumdar, M., Sooriyakumar, K., Martin, J., and Huissoon, A.P. (2023). Case report: Clearance of longstanding, immune-deficiency-associated, vaccine-derived polio virus infection following remdesivir therapy for chronic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1135834"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.01.018","article-title":"Immunodeficiency-related vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) cases: A systematic review and implications for polio eradication","volume":"33","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6928a4","article-title":"Update on Immunodeficiency-Associated Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, July 2018\u2013December 2019","volume":"69","author":"Macklin","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohanty, M.C., Madkaikar, M.R., Desai, M., Aluri, J., Varose, S.Y., Taur, P., Sharma, D.K., Nalavade, U.P., Rane, S.V., and Gupta, M. (2019). Natural Clearance of Prolonged VDPV Infection in a Child With Primary Immunodeficiency Disorder. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01567"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1086\/596052","article-title":"Transmission of imported vaccine-derived poliovirus in an undervaccinated community in Minnesota","volume":"199","author":"Alexander","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3413","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39094-0","article-title":"Asymptomatic immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus infections in two UK children","volume":"14","author":"Singanayagam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00582-5","article-title":"A novel tool to eradicate an ancient scourge: The novel oral polio vaccine type 2 story","volume":"23","author":"Bandyopadhyay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/128.6.802","article-title":"Poliomyelitis in hypogammaglobulinemics","volume":"128","author":"Wyatt","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6530a3","article-title":"Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, January 2015\u2013May 2016","volume":"65","author":"Jorba","year":"2016","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.3109\/08820139.2013.859156","article-title":"Combined immunodeficiency presenting with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis: A case report and narrative review of literature","volume":"43","author":"Shaghaghi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1607.091606","article-title":"Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in immunodeficient children, Iran, 1995\u20132008","volume":"16","author":"Shahmahmoodi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)90903-2","article-title":"Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis and HIV infection","volume":"343","author":"Dobrescu","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.318.7187.841","article-title":"Paralytic poliomyelitis associated with live oral poliomyelitis vaccine in child with HIV infection in Zimbabwe: Case report","volume":"318","author":"Chitsike","year":"1999","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1411.080517","article-title":"Paralysis case and contact spread of recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus, Spain","volume":"14","author":"Avellon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohanty, M.C., Govindaraj, G., Ahmad, M., Varose, S.Y., Tatkare, M., Shete, A., Yadav, S., Joshi, Y., Yadav, P., and Sharma, D. (2024). Immunodeficiency-Related Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus (iVDPV) Excretion in an Infant with Severe Combined Immune Deficiency with Spillover to a Parent. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12070759"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.02.022","article-title":"Concurrent outbreaks of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus types 1 and 2 affecting the Republic of the Philippines and Malaysia, 2019\u20132021","volume":"41","author":"Snider","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.401","article-title":"Polio eradication: The OPV paradox","volume":"13","author":"Dowdle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e295","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881900181X","article-title":"Updated modelling of the prevalence of immunodeficiency-associated long-term vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) excreters","volume":"147","author":"Kalkowska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2006.00842.x","article-title":"The costs of future polio risk management policies","volume":"26","author":"Tebbens","year":"2006","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khetsuriani, N., Helfand, R., Pallansch, M., Kew, O., Fowlkes, A., Oberste, M.S., Tukei, P., Muli, J., Makokha, E., and Gary, H. (2009). Limited duration of vaccine poliovirus and other enterovirus excretion among human immunodeficiency virus infected children in Kenya. BMC Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-9-136"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268816002302","article-title":"Comprehensive screening for immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus: An essential oral poliovirus vaccine cessation risk management strategy","volume":"145","author":"Thompson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S373","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu221","article-title":"Screening for long-term poliovirus excretion among children with primary immunodeficiency disorders: Preparation for the polio posteradication era in Bangladesh","volume":"210","author":"Sazzad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2210.151071","article-title":"Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses and Children with Primary Immunodeficiency, Iran, 1995\u20132014","volume":"22","author":"Shaghaghi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2511.190540","article-title":"Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Infection among Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency and Effect of Patient Screening on Disease Outcomes, Iran","volume":"25","author":"Shaghaghi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7136a2","article-title":"Detection of a Highly Divergent Type 3 Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus in a Child with a Severe Primary Immunodeficiency Disorder\u2014Chongqing, China, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Yao","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2016). Meeting of the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization, October 2016\u2014Conclusions and recommendation. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec., 91, 561\u2013584."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2022). Guidelines for Implementing Polio Surveillance Among Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders (PIDs), Global Polio Eradication Initiative."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2705.204675","article-title":"Coordinated Response to Imported Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Infection, Barcelona, Spain, 2019\u20132020","volume":"27","author":"Politi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2316","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1008677","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliomyelitis 12 years after infection in Minnesota","volume":"364","author":"DeVries","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.58.030603.123625","article-title":"Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for global polio eradication","volume":"59","author":"Kew","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.02.071","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV): Impact on poliomyelitis eradication","volume":"27","author":"Minor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.09.005","article-title":"Poliovirus mutants excreted by a chronically infected hypogammaglobulinemic patient establish persistent infections in human intestinal cells","volume":"318","author":"Labadie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.37.1.46-53.1982","article-title":"Alteration in oligonucleotide fingerprint patterns of the viral genome in poliovirus type 2 isolated from paralytic patients","volume":"37","author":"Yoneyama","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1981.tb00095.x","article-title":"Antigenic analysis of polioviruses isolated from a child with agammaglobulinemia and paralytic poliomyelitis after Sabin vaccine administration","volume":"25","author":"Hara","year":"1981","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00443199","article-title":"Paralytic poliomyelitis in a child with agammaglobulinemia","volume":"132","author":"Abo","year":"1979","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.67.785.301","article-title":"Prolonged faecal excretion of poliovirus in a nurse with common variable hypogammaglobulinaemia","volume":"67","author":"Misbah","year":"1991","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"75","article-title":"Characteristics of poliovirus strains from long-term excretors with primary immunodeficiencies","volume":"105","author":"Minor","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16150-3","article-title":"Failure to clear persistent vaccine-derived neurovirulent poliovirus infection in an immunodeficient man","volume":"363","author":"MacLennan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn, G., Klapsa, D., Wilton, T., Stone, L., Minor, P.D., and Martin, J. (2015). Twenty-Eight Years of Poliovirus Replication in an Immunodeficient Individual: Impact on the Global Polio Eradication Initiative. PLoS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005114"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2008.07.006","article-title":"Isolation of a type 3 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) from an Iranian child with X-linked agammaglobulinemia","volume":"137","author":"Shahmahmoodi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000069792.60744.5b","article-title":"Paralytic poliomyelitis caused by a vaccine-derived polio virus in an antibody-deficient Argentinean child","volume":"22","author":"Hidalgo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008). Laboratory surveillance for wild and vaccine-derived polioviruses\u2014worldwide, January 2007\u2013June 2008. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 57, 967\u2013970."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.18974-0","article-title":"Nucleotide variation in Sabin type 2 poliovirus from an immunodeficient patient with poliomyelitis","volume":"84","author":"Buttinelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1105.0528","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliovirus, Thailand, 2003","volume":"11","author":"Tharmaphornpilas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2007.04.002","article-title":"Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in a patient with MHC class II deficiency","volume":"39","author":"Parvaneh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005). Poliovirus infections in four unvaccinated children\u2014Minnesota, August\u2013October 2005. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 54, 1053\u20131055."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007). Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses\u2014worldwide, January 2006-August 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 56, 996\u20131001."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-008-0674-5","article-title":"Novel BTK mutation presenting with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis","volume":"167","author":"Mamishi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3486","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01122-14","article-title":"Sequential asymptomatic enterovirus infections in a patient with major histocompatibility complex class II primary immunodeficiency","volume":"52","author":"Driss","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009). Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, January 2008\u2013June 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 1002\u20131006."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2010.02.619","article-title":"A vaccine derived poliovirus case in an immunocompromised argentinian child","volume":"14","author":"Burgos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, July 2009\u2013March 2011. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 60, 846\u2013850."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses\u2014worldwide, April 2011\u2013June 2012. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 61, 741\u2013746."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"242","article-title":"Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, july 2012\u2013december 2013","volume":"63","author":"Diop","year":"2014","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H.-B., Luo, H.-M., Li, L., Fan, C.-X., Hao, L.-X., Ma, C., Su, Q.-R., Yang, H., Reilly, K.H., and Wang, H.-Q. (2017). Vaccine-derived poliovirus surveillance in China during 2001\u20132013: The potential challenge for maintaining polio free status. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2849-z"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1806.120037","article-title":"Immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus type 3 in infant, South Africa, 2011","volume":"18","author":"Gumede","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"640","article-title":"Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, January 2014\u2013March 2015","volume":"64","author":"Diop","year":"2015","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1508104","article-title":"Two Cases of Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Infection in an Oncology Ward","volume":"374","author":"Schubert","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"724","article-title":"Vaccine-Associated Paralytic Poliomyelitis and BCG-osis in an Immigrant Child with Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome\u2014Texas, 2013","volume":"63","author":"Trimble","year":"2014","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6643a6","article-title":"Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, January 2016-June 2017","volume":"66","author":"Jorba","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6742a5","article-title":"Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses\u2014Worldwide, January 2017\u2013June 2018","volume":"67","author":"Jorba","year":"2018","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howard, W., Moonsamy, S., Seakamela, L., Jallow, S., Modiko, F., du Plessis, H., Sibiya, R., Kamupira, M., Maseti, E., and Suchard, M. (2021). Sensitivity of the acute flaccid paralysis surveillance system for poliovirus in South Africa, 2016\u20132019. J. Med. Microbiol., 70.","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001441"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/12\/1128\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:56:20Z","timestamp":1760115380000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/13\/12\/1128"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens13121128"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens13121128","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]}}}