{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:00:39Z","timestamp":1787029239852,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 1890 Capacity Building Grants Program","award":["USDA\/NIFA CBG 2021-38821-34710"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["USDA\/NIFA CBG 2021-38821-34710"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in retail meat poses a public health threat requiring continuous surveillance. This study investigated the frequency of isolation, toxin genes, and antibiotic resistance profile of S. aureus recovered from retail poultry meat samples and presented results beneficial to public health interventions. Of 200 samples collected, 16% (32\/200) tested positive for S. aureus, and these were recovered from thigh 37.5% (12\/32), wing 34.4% (11\/32), gizzard (15.6% (5\/32), and liver 12.5% (4\/32) samples. Findings of spa typing analysis revealed that 68.8% (22\/32), 18.8% (6\/32), 9.4% (3\/32), and 3.0% (1\/32) of the isolates belonged to the spa types t267, t160, t548, and t008, respectively. For antibiotic susceptibility testing, 12.5% (4\/32) of the isolates were resistant to only penicillin, but one isolate (1\/32; 3%) showed resistance to the antibiotics penicillin, erythromycin, ampicillin, and oxacillin. PCR analysis revealed that 9.4% (3\/32) of the isolates carried the mecA gene associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates. One MRSA isolate was identified as a t008 spa type, and harbored a 26,974 bp-sized plasmid, which was the source of its resistance to penicillin, ampicillin, erythromycin, and oxacillin. The staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) genes seg, sei, sek, seb, selm, and seln were also identified among the isolates, and mostly the antimicrobial and enterotoxin genes were carried on plasmids of the isolates. This study raises awareness on the continuous circulation of pathogenic microbes like S. aureus in retail poultry meat.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14020107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T05:50:53Z","timestamp":1737525053000},"page":"107","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Antimicrobial Resistance, Virulence Gene Profiling, and Spa Typing of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Retail Chicken Meat in Alabama, USA"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Rawah","family":"Faraj","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6687-3758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazem","family":"Ramadan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hygiene and Zoonoses Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kingsley E.","family":"Bentum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bilal","family":"Alkaraghulli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yilkal","family":"Woube","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zakaria","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"},{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City 32511, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9722-5318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Temesgen","family":"Samuel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9470-9421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abiodun","family":"Adesiyun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 999183, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8480-4556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlene R.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poultry Microbiological Safety and Processing Research Unit USDA-ARS, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Woubit","family":"Abebe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Food Animal Health, Food Safety and Defense, Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2017.07.008","article-title":"A Retrospective Analysis of the United States Poultry Industry: 1965 Compared with 2010","volume":"157","author":"Putman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2024, July 18). USDA-Economic Research Service Poultry Sector at a Glance, Available online: https:\/\/www.ers.usda.gov\/topics\/animal-products\/poultry-eggs\/sector-at-a-glance\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1353\/sgo.1971.0000","article-title":"The Growth and Localization of the United States Broiler Chicken Industry","volume":"11","author":"Lord","year":"1971","journal-title":"Southeast. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1002\/aepp.13089","article-title":"Estimating COVID-19 Impacts on the Broiler Industry","volume":"43","author":"Maples","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kuck, G., and Schnitkey, G. (2021). An Overview of Meat Consumption in the United States, Farmdoc Daily."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mudenda, S., Malama, S., Munyeme, M., Hang\u2019ombe, B.M., Mainda, G., Kapona, O., Mukosha, M., Yamba, K., Bumbangi, F.N., and Mfune, R.L. (2022). Awareness of Antimicrobial Resistance and Associated Factors among Layer Poultry Farmers in Zambia: Implications for Surveillance and Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11030383"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.2527\/af.2016-0028","article-title":"Antibiotics Shape Microbiota and Weight Gain across the Animal Kingdom","volume":"6","author":"Cox","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Front."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"440","article-title":"Antibiotic Use in Poultry: A Driving Force for Organic Poultry Production","volume":"35","author":"Moscoso","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Prot. Trends"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"25","article-title":"Sub-Therapeutic Use of Antibiotics in Animal Feed and Their Potential Impact on Environmental and Human Health: A Comprehensive Review Bacteriological Quality of Meat and Meat Products View Project Food Borne Pathogen in Ready to Eat Foods of Animal Origi","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-022-00351-x","article-title":"A Review of the Effectiveness of Current US Policies on Antimicrobial Use in Meat and Poultry Production","volume":"9","author":"Wallinga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Heal. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, H., Cheng, G., Iqbal, Z., Ai, X., Hussain, H.I., Huang, L., Dai, M., Wang, Y., Liu, Z., and Yuan, Z. (2014). Benefits and Risks of Antimicrobial Use in Food-Producing Animals. Front. Microbiol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00288"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24655","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.24655","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance: The Challenges and Some Emerging Strategies for Tackling a Global Menace","volume":"36","author":"Ugwu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2200","article-title":"Waves of Resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the Antibiotic Era","volume":"7","author":"Chambers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, S., Duan, N., Gu, H., Hao, L., Ye, H., Gong, W., and Wang, Z. (2016). A Review of the Methods for Detection of Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxins. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8070176"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parvin, M.S., Ali, M.Y., Talukder, S., Nahar, A., Chowdhury, E.H., Rahman, M.T., and Islam, M.T. (2021). Prevalence and Multidrug Resistance Pattern of Methicillin Resistant S. Aureus Isolated from Frozen Chicken Meat in Bangladesh. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202103.0024.v1"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4046","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pex200","article-title":"Microbial Loads and Antibiotic Resistance Patterns of Staphylococcus aureus in Different Types of Raw Poultry-Based Meat Preparations","volume":"96","author":"Capita","year":"2017","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsehayneh, B., Yayeh, T., and Agmas, B. (2021). Evaluation of Bacterial Load and Antibiotic Resistance Pattern of Staphylococcus aureus from Ready-to-Eat Raw Beef in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia. Int. J. Microbiol., 2021.","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5560596"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeaki, N., Johler, S., Skandamis, P.N., and Schelin, J. (2019). The Role of Regulatory Mechanisms and Environmental Parameters in Staphylococcal Food Poisoning and Resulting Challenges to Risk Assessment. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01307"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peterson, E., and Kaur, P. (2018). Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms in Bacteria: Relationships Between Resistance Determinants of Antibiotic Producers, Environmental Bacteria, and Clinical Pathogens. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02928"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2071751","article-title":"Food Poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxins","volume":"2","author":"Mendoza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadariya, J., Smith, T.C., and Thapaliya, D. (2014). Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcal Food-Borne Disease: An Ongoing Challenge in Public Health. BioMed Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/827965"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2013.11.004","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Toxins","volume":"17","author":"Otto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaj\u0119cka-Wierzchowska, W., Gajewska, J., Wi\u015bniewski, P., and Zadernowska, A. (2020). Enterotoxigenic Potential of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci from Ready-to-Eat Food. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9090734"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2011.00311.x","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus and Its Food Poisoning Toxins: Characterization and Outbreak Investigation","volume":"36","author":"Hennekinne","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinchuk, I.V., Beswick, E.J., and Reyes, V.E. (2010). Staphylococcal Enterotoxins. Toxins, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2082177"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00681.x","article-title":"The Bacterial Superantigen and Superantigen-like Proteins","volume":"225","author":"Fraser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-014-0114-2","article-title":"Clinical Detection and Characterization of Bacterial Pathogens in the Genomics Era","volume":"6","author":"Fournier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2014.0238","article-title":"Spa Typing and Multilocus Sequence Typing Show Comparable Performance in a Macroepidemiologic Study of Staphylococcus aureus in the United States","volume":"22","author":"Suaya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02803-14","article-title":"Transmission and Persistence of Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Veterinarians and Their Household Members","volume":"81","author":"Bosch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.07.003","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Southwest of Iran Using Spa and SCCmec Typing Methods","volume":"98","author":"Khoramrooz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rouger, A., Tresse, O., and Zagorec, M. (2017). Bacterial Contaminants of Poultry Meat: Sources, Species, and Dynamics. Microorganisms, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms5030050"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rohde, A., Hammerl, J.A., Appel, B., Dieckmann, R., and Al Dahouk, S. (2015). Sampling and Homogenization Strategies Significantly Influence the Detection of Foodborne Pathogens in Meat. BioMed Res. Int., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/145437"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-0711-9-23","article-title":"Identification of Staphylococcus aureus: DNase and Mannitol Salt Agar Improve the Efficiency of the Tube Coagulase Test","volume":"9","author":"Kateete","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3109\/15563657208991025","article-title":"The Nature of Bacterial Toxins","volume":"5","author":"Bergdoll","year":"1972","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12186","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Spa Type T267, Clonal Ancestor of Bovine Subclinical Mastitis in India","volume":"114","author":"Mitra","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roetzer, A., Gruener, C.S., Haller, G., Beyerly, J., Model, N., and Eibl, M.M. (2016). Enterotoxin Gene Cluster-Encoded SEI and SElN from Staphylococcus aureus Isolates Are Crucial for the Induction of Human Blood Cell Proliferation and Pathogenicity in Rabbits. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8110314"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-11-241","article-title":"Exploring the Contribution of Efflux on the Resistance to Fluoroquinolones in Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"11","author":"Costa","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkn217","article-title":"Efflux-Mediated Response of Staphylococcus aureus Exposed to Ethidium Bromide","volume":"62","author":"Couto","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg437","article-title":"Telithromycin Post-Antibiotic and Post-Antibiotic Sub-MIC Effects for 10 Gram-Positive Cocci","volume":"52","author":"Jacobs","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3179","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2014-04321","article-title":"Genotypes and Oxacillin Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from Chicken and Chicken Meat in Poland","volume":"93","author":"Krupa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34216","article-title":"Characterization of Toxin Genes and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates in Fishery Products in Iran","volume":"6","author":"Arfatahery","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s13213-014-0859-2","article-title":"Incidence and Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated from Food Markets","volume":"65","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6489","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.11.6489-6494.2003","article-title":"Methicillin (Oxacillin)-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated from Major Food Animals and Their Potential Transmission to Humans","volume":"69","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/46.4.527","article-title":"Multiplex PCR Assays for the Detection of Clinically Relevant Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Staphylococci Isolated from Patients Infected after Cardiac Surgery","volume":"46","author":"Martineau","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Warnes, G., Bolker, B., Bonebakker, L., Gentleman, R., Huber, W., Liaw, A., Lumley, T., Maechler, M., Magnusson, A., and Moeller, S. (2024, November 10). gplots: Various R Programming Tools for Plotting Data. Available online: https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/gplots\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021). R Core Team 2023 R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Microsoft Corporation (2024, November 01). Microsoft Excel. Available online: https:\/\/office.microsoft.com\/excel."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.5.1072","article-title":"PCR Primers for the Detection of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins K, L, and M and Survey of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Types in Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Food Poisoning Cases in Taiwan","volume":"69","author":"Chiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.67.1.22-32.2001","article-title":"Molecular Ecology of Tetracycline Resistance: Development and Validation of Primers for Detection of Tetracycline Resistance Genes Encoding Ribosomal Protection Proteins","volume":"67","author":"Aminov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5442","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.12.5442-5448.2003","article-title":"Typing of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a University Hospital Setting by Using Novel Software for Spa Repeat Determination and Database Management","volume":"41","author":"Harmsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01599-07","article-title":"Spa Typing of Staphylococcus aureus as a Frontline Tool in Epidemiological Typing","volume":"46","author":"Strommenger","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Andrews, S. (2010). FastQC: A Quality Control Tool for High Throughput Sequence Data, The Babraham Institute. Available online: https:\/\/www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk\/projects\/fastqc\/."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"e000132","article-title":"Completing Bacterial Genome Assemblies with Multiplex MinION Sequencing","volume":"3","author":"Wick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0072-8","article-title":"Assembly of Long, Error-Prone Reads Using Repeat Graphs","volume":"37","author":"Kolmogorov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00483","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00483-19","article-title":"Validating the AMRFinder Tool and Resistance Gene Database by Using Antimicrobial Resistance Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in a Collection of Isolates","volume":"63","author":"Feldgarden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"117863372110373","article-title":"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Prevalence, Antimicrobial Susceptibility Pattern, and Detection of Mec A Gene among Cardiac Patients from a Tertiary Care Heart Center in Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Dhungel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2011.06.001","article-title":"Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on Retail Meat in Iowa","volume":"4","author":"Hanson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir181","article-title":"Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US Meat and Poultry","volume":"52","author":"Waters","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"257","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus in Poultry, with Special Emphasis on Methicillin-Resistant Strain Infection: A Comprehensive Review from One Health Perspective","volume":"7","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. One Heal."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velasco, V., Quezada-Aguiluz, M., Bello-Toledo, H., Velasco, V., Quezada-Aguiluz, M., and Bello-Toledo, H. (2019). Staphylococcus aureus in the Meat Supply Chain: Detection Methods, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Virulence Factors. Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.85620"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3627","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00550-13","article-title":"Emetic Potentials of Newly Identified Staphylococcal Enterotoxin-like Toxins","volume":"81","author":"Omoe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hennekinne, J.A., Ostyn, A., Guillier, F., Herbin, S., Prufer, A.L., and Dragacci, S. (2010). How Should Staphylococcal Food Poisoning Outbreaks Be Characterized?. Toxins, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2082106"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2902","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.15738","article-title":"\u2018To Be, or Not to Be\u2019\u2014The Dilemma of \u2018Silent\u2019 Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Bacteria","volume":"133","author":"Deekshit","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"389","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance Genes & Susceptibility Patterns in Staphylococci","volume":"135","author":"Duran","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3057","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-010-0389-4","article-title":"Mobile Genetic Elements of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"67","author":"Malachowa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci. C."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7760","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.12.7760-7771.2001","article-title":"Complete Nucleotide Sequence of a Staphylococcus aureus Exfoliative Toxin B Plasmid and Identification of a Novel ADP-Ribosyltransferase, EDIN-C","volume":"69","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.09.30","article-title":"Genetics of Antimicrobial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"4","author":"Jensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCarthy, A.J., and Lindsay, J.A. (2012). The Distribution of Plasmids That Carry Virulence and Resistance Genes in Staphylococcus aureus Is Lineage Associated. BMC Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-12-104"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hudson, L.O., Murphy, C.R., Spratt, B.G., Enright, M.C., Elkins, K., Nguyen, C., Terpstra, L., Gombosev, A., Kim, D., and Hannah, P. (2013). Diversity of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Strains Isolated from Inpatients of 30 Hospitals in Orange County, California. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062117"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1311.070358","article-title":"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Meat Products, the Netherlands","volume":"13","author":"Diederen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01110-08","article-title":"Isolation and Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Strains from Louisiana Retail Meats","volume":"75","author":"Pu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2438","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00808-08","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Isolates Collected in a Dutch University Hospital between 1999 and 2006","volume":"46","author":"Nulens","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12304","article-title":"Isolation of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Spp. from Ready-to-eat Fish Products","volume":"59","author":"Sergelidis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03166-12","article-title":"Prevalence and Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Retail Meat and Humans in Georgia","volume":"51","author":"Jackson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhen, X., Lundborg, C.S., Zhang, M., Sun, X., Li, Y., Hu, X., Gu, S., Gu, Y., Wei, J., and Dong, H. (2020). Clinical and Economic Impact of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A Multicentre Study in China. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-60825-6"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/2\/107\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:33:34Z","timestamp":1759919614000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/2\/107"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens14020107"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens14020107","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]}}}