{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T03:46:17Z","timestamp":1792727177480,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]],"date-time":"2025-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Bacillus Calmette\u2013Gu\u00e9rin (BCG) vaccine, best known for its role in preventing tuberculosis, has recently garnered attention for its broader immunomodulatory effects. By inducing trained immunity, BCG reprograms innate immune cells, enhancing their responses to various pathogens. This process, driven by epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming, suggests that BCG may have therapeutic potential far beyond tuberculosis. Emerging evidence points to its potential benefits in conditions such as autoimmune diseases, cancer, and viral infections. Furthermore, by modulating immune activity, BCG has been proposed to reduce chronic inflammation and promote immune tolerance. This review delves into the multifaceted role of BCG, highlighting its potential as a versatile therapeutic tool for managing a wide range of diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14020196","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,17]],"date-time":"2025-02-17T04:40:25Z","timestamp":1739767225000},"page":"196","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Beyond Tuberculosis: The Surprising Immunological Benefits of the Bacillus Calmette\u2013Gu\u00e9rin (BCG) Vaccine in Infectious, Auto-Immune, and Inflammatory Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5551-7707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Jurczak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Institute of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Immunology, University of Lodz, Banacha 12\/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland"},{"name":"The Bio-Med-Chem Doctoral of the University of Lodz and Lodz Institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Experimental Immunology, MOLecoLAB: Lodz Centre of Molecular Studies on Civilisation Diseases, Medical University of Lodz, 92-215 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9386-4809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Druszczynska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Institute of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Immunology, University of Lodz, Banacha 12\/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, J., Su, Y., Wang, R., Dong, E., Cao, Y., Zhao, W., and Gong, W. (2023). Research Progress on Specific and Non-Specific Immune Effects of BCG and the Possibility of BCG Protection against COVID-19. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1118378"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e55332","DOI":"10.2196\/55332","article-title":"Nonspecific Effects of the Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Vaccine in Portuguese Children Under 5 Years of Age: Protocol for a Population-Based Historical Birth Cohort Study","volume":"13","author":"Fronteira","year":"2024","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trunk, G., Davidovi\u0107, M., and Bohlius, J. (2023). Non-Specific Effects of Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11010121"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.18.7.843-b","article-title":"Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin (B.C.G.): Animal Experimentation and Prophylactic Immunization of Children","volume":"18","author":"Petroff","year":"1928","journal-title":"Am. J. Public. Health Nations Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11244-X","article-title":"A Brief History of the World Health Organization","volume":"360","author":"McCarthy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(02)00182-2","article-title":"BCG\u2014Different Strains, Different Vaccines?","volume":"2","author":"Behr","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1111\/iju.13538","article-title":"Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Strain Differences as the Basis for Immunotherapies against Bladder Cancer","volume":"25","author":"Miyazaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"517","article-title":"Results of BCG Immunization in New York City","volume":"53","author":"Levine","year":"1946","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Tuberc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-3879(49)80055-9","article-title":"BCG Vaccination of Indian Infants in Saskatchewan","volume":"30","author":"Ferguson","year":"1949","journal-title":"Tubercle"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"690","article-title":"BCG Vaccination in Tuberculous Households","volume":"84","author":"Rosenthal","year":"1961","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e3182458289","article-title":"Small Randomized Trial among Low-Birth-Weight Children Receiving Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Vaccination at First Health Center Contact","volume":"31","author":"Aaby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)90794-4","article-title":"Efficacy of BCG Vaccine against Leprosy and Tuberculosis in Northern Malawi","volume":"339","author":"Ponnighaus","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2782","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(03)00181-6","article-title":"BCG Scar and Positive Tuberculin Reaction Associated with Reduced Child Mortality in West Africa: A Non-Specific Beneficial Effect of BCG?","volume":"21","author":"Garly","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir240","article-title":"Randomized Trial of BCG Vaccination at Birth to Low-Birth-Weight Children: Beneficial Nonspecific Effects in the Neonatal Period?","volume":"204","author":"Aaby","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2011.04.006","article-title":"Trained Immunity: A Memory for Innate Host Defense","volume":"9","author":"Netea","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e121","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.121","article-title":"Trained Immunity: A Yin-Yang Balance","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17537","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1202870109","article-title":"Bacille Calmette-Guerin Induces NOD2-Dependent Nonspecific Protection from Reinfection via Epigenetic Reprogramming of Monocytes","volume":"109","author":"Kleinnijenhuis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.11.025","article-title":"Metabolic Induction of Trained Immunity through the Mevalonate Pathway","volume":"172","author":"Bekkering","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.11.011","article-title":"Immunometabolic Pathways in BCG-Induced Trained Immunity","volume":"17","author":"Arts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1080\/08830185.2020.1712379","article-title":"BCG-Induced Trained Immunity in Macrophage: Reprograming of Glucose Metabolism","volume":"39","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2023.109698","article-title":"ATF4 Knockdown in Macrophage Impairs Glycolysis and Mediates Immune Tolerance by Targeting HK2 and HIF-1\u03b1 Ubiquitination in Sepsis","volume":"254","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.03.084","article-title":"Immunisation with the BCG and DTPw Vaccines Induces Different Programs of Trained Immunity in Mice","volume":"40","author":"Stevens","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.06.006","article-title":"Candida Albicans Infection Affords Protection against Reinfection via Functional Reprogramming of Monocytes","volume":"12","author":"Quintin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02103-4","article-title":"Systemic Administration of \u03b2-Glucan Induces Immune Training in Microglia","volume":"18","author":"Heng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2955","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10486-5","article-title":"Induction of Memory-like Dendritic Cell Responses in Vivo","volume":"10","author":"Hole","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2014.10.005","article-title":"BCG-Induced Trained Immunity in NK Cells: Role for Non-Specific Protection to Infection","volume":"155","author":"Kleinnijenhuis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-019-0430-1","article-title":"Mouse Cytomegalovirus-Experienced ILC1s Acquire a Memory Response Dependent on the Viral Glycoprotein M12","volume":"20","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1093\/jleuko\/qiad103","article-title":"BCG Vaccination Induces Innate Immune Memory in \u0393\u03b4 T Cells in Humans","volume":"115","author":"Suen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00349-16","article-title":"In Vitro Experimental Model of Trained Innate Immunity in Human Primary Monocytes","volume":"23","author":"Bekkering","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2017.12.010","article-title":"BCG Vaccination Protects against Experimental Viral Infection in Humans through the Induction of Cytokines Associated with Trained Immunity","volume":"23","author":"Arts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2021.155773","article-title":"IL-1 Family Cytokines as Drivers and Inhibitors of Trained Immunity","volume":"150","author":"Teufel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3664","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-05-2058","article-title":"Imprint of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection on the NK Cell Receptor Repertoire","volume":"104","author":"Angulo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1502049","article-title":"Influenza Vaccination Generates Cytokine-Induced Memory-like NK Cells: Impact of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection","volume":"197","author":"Goodier","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4657","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1403080","article-title":"Impaired NK Cell Responses to Pertussis and H1N1 Influenza Vaccine Antigens in Human Cytomegalovirus-Infected Individuals","volume":"194","author":"Nielsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3472","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201040587","article-title":"Memory-like IFN-\u03b3 Response by NK Cells Following Malaria Infection Reveals the Crucial Role of T Cells in NK Cell Activation by P. Falciparum","volume":"40","author":"McCall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1501996","article-title":"BCG Re-Vaccination of Adults with Latent Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection Induces Long-Lived BCG-Reactive Natural Killer Cell Responses","volume":"197","author":"Suliman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.12.031","article-title":"BCG Educates Hematopoietic Stem Cells to Generate Protective Innate Immunity against Tuberculosis","volume":"172","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.05.014","article-title":"BCG Vaccination in Humans Elicits Trained Immunity via the Hematopoietic Progenitor Compartment","volume":"28","author":"Cirovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.10.008","article-title":"Glutaminolysis and Fumarate Accumulation Integrate Immunometabolic and Epigenetic Programs in Trained Immunity","volume":"24","author":"Arts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251086","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1251086","article-title":"Epigenetic Programming of Monocyte-to-Macrophage Differentiation and Trained Innate Immunity","volume":"345","author":"Saeed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107733","article-title":"Intravenous BCG Vaccination Reduces SARS-CoV-2 Severity and Promotes Extensive Reprogramming of Lung Immune Cells","volume":"26","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2004.09.006","article-title":"Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infections and Respiratory Syncytial Virus in Infants in Guinea-Bissau: A Beneficial Effect of BCG Vaccination for Girls: Community Based Case\u2013Control Study","volume":"23","author":"Stensballe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110502","article-title":"BCG Vaccination Provides Protection against IAV but Not SARS-CoV-2","volume":"38","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kao, C.M. (2024). Overview of COVID-19 Infection, Treatment, and Prevention in Children. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13020424"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2024, November 20). COVID-Coronavirus Statistics-Worldometer. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/coronavirus\/."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2021.10.003","article-title":"BCG Vaccination and the Risk of COVID 19: A Possible Correlation","volume":"565","author":"Ahmed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e157393","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.157393","article-title":"Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin\u2013Induced Trained Immunity Protects against SARS-CoV-2 Challenge in K18-HACE2 Mice","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20211862","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20211862","article-title":"Intravenous Administration of BCG Protects Mice against Lethal SARS-CoV-2 Challenge","volume":"219","author":"Hilligan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3913","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1956228","article-title":"Effectiveness of Booster BCG Vaccination in Preventing Covid-19 Infection","volume":"17","author":"Amirlak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101414","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of BCG Re-Vaccination in Relation to COVID-19 Morbidity in Healthcare Workers: A Double-Blind, Randomised, Controlled, Phase 3 Trial","volume":"48","author":"Upton","year":"2022","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"dos Anjos, L.R.B., da Costa, A.C., Cardoso, A.d.R.O., Guimar\u00e3es, R.A., Rodrigues, R.L., Ribeiro, K.M., Borges, K.C.M., Carvalho, A.C.d.O., Dias, C.I.S., and Rezende, A.d.O. (2022). Efficacy and Safety of BCG Revaccination with M. bovis BCG Moscow to Prevent COVID-19 Infection in Health Care Workers: A Randomized Phase II Clinical Trial. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.841868"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos-Martinez, E., Falf\u00e1n-Valencia, R., P\u00e9rez-Rubio, G., Andrade, W.A., Rojas-Serrano, J., Ambrocio-Ortiz, E., Galicia-\u00e1lvarez, D.S., B\u00e1rcenas-Montiel, I., Velasco-Medina, A., and Vel\u00e1zquez-S\u00e1mano, G. (2021). Effect of Bcg Revaccination on Occupationally Exposed Medical Personnel Vaccinated against Sars-Cov-2. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10113179"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rakshit, S., Adiga, V., Ahmed, A., Parthiban, C., Chetan Kumar, N., Dwarkanath, P., Shivalingaiah, S., Rao, S., D\u2019Souza, G., and Dias, M. (2022). Evidence for the Heterologous Benefits of Prior BCG Vaccination on COVISHIELDTM Vaccine-Induced Immune Responses in SARS-CoV-2 Seronegative Young Indian Adults. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.985938"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"White, A.D., Sibley, L., Sarfas, C., Morrison, A.L., Bewley, K., Churchward, C., Fotheringham, S., Gkolfinos, K., Gooch, K., and Handley, A. (2022). Influence of Aerosol Delivered BCG Vaccination on Immunological and Disease Parameters Following SARS-CoV-2 Challenge in Rhesus Macaques. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.801799"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.20033","article-title":"Therapeutic BCG Vaccine Protects against Long COVID: The BATTLE Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"297","author":"Jalalizadeh","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-023-07662-w","article-title":"Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Vaccination as Defense against SARS-CoV-2 (BADAS): A Randomized Controlled Trial to Protect Healthcare Workers in the USA by Enhanced Trained Immune Responses","volume":"24","author":"DiNardo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.12.048","article-title":"A Single, Low Dose of a CGMP Recombinant BCG Vaccine Elicits Protective T Cell Immunity against the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection and Prevents Lung Pathology in Mice","volume":"35","author":"Espinoza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2024, November 20). WHO Preferred Product Characteristics for Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccines. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-IVB-17.11."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20822","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0806244105","article-title":"Protective T Cell Immunity against Respiratory Syncytial Virus Is Efficiently Induced by Recombinant BCG","volume":"105","author":"Bueno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7633","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0903452","article-title":"Efficient Lung Recruitment of Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Specific Th1 Cells Induced by Recombinant Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Promotes Virus Clearance and Protects from Infection","volume":"185","author":"Cautivo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9112","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1217508110","article-title":"Impaired Learning Resulting from Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection","volume":"110","author":"Espinoza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Ge, F., Wang, J., Li, H., Zheng, B., Li, W., Chen, S., Zheng, X., Deng, Y., and Wang, Y. (2023). Mycobacterium Bovis BCG Given at Birth Followed by Inactivated Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine Prevents Vaccine-Enhanced Disease by Promoting Trained Macrophages and Resident Memory T Cells. J. Virol., 97.","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01764-22"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2017.1334026","article-title":"A Safe and Efficient BCG Vectored Vaccine to Prevent the Disease Caused by the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus","volume":"13","author":"Soto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2024, November 20). Influenza (Seasonal). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/influenza-(seasonal)."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K.H., Lee, Y.T., Park, Y., Ko, E.J., Jung, Y.J., Kim, Y.J., Jo, E.K., and Kang, S.M. (2021). BCG Cell Wall Skeleton As a Vaccine Adjuvant Protects Both Infant and Old-Aged Mice from Influenza Virus Infection. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9050516"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-024-01773-5","article-title":"Author Correction: BCG Immunization Induces CX3CR1hi Effector Memory T Cells to Provide Cross-Protection via IFN-\u03b3-Mediated Trained Immunity","volume":"25","author":"Tran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2024). A Mechanism for BCG Vaccine Cross-Protection against Pulmonary Viral Infections. Nat. Immunol., 25, 403\u2013404.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-024-01775-3"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2024, November 20). Global Cancer Burden Growing, amidst Mounting Need for Services. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/01-02-2024-global-cancer-burden-growing--amidst-mounting-need-for-services."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a121646","article-title":"Cancer and Tuberculosis","volume":"9","author":"Pearl","year":"1929","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1038\/s41585-018-0055-4","article-title":"Mechanisms of BCG Immunotherapy and Its Outlook for Bladder Cancer","volume":"15","author":"Pettenati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpt.2022.12.002","article-title":"Role of T Cells in Cancer Immunotherapy: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"1","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Pathog. Ther."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-023-03944-8","article-title":"BCG-Induced Trained Immunity: History, Mechanisms and Potential Applications","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sui, Y., and Berzofsky, J.A. (2024). Trained Immunity Inducers in Cancer Immunotherapy. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1427443"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/s41408-021-00459-7","article-title":"CAR-T Cell Therapy: Current Limitations and Potential Strategies","volume":"11","author":"Sterner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood Cancer J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1038\/leu.2017.141","article-title":"KDM6B Modulates MAPK Pathway Mediating Multiple Myeloma Cell Growth and Survival","volume":"31","author":"Ohguchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Leukemia"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buffen, K., Oosting, M., Quintin, J., Ng, A., Kleinnijenhuis, J., Kumar, V., van de Vosse, E., Wijmenga, C., van Crevel, R., and Oosterwijk, E. (2014). Autophagy Controls BCG-Induced Trained Immunity and the Response to Intravesical BCG Therapy for Bladder Cancer. PLoS Pathog., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004485"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"e076743","article-title":"Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment of Bladder Cancer","volume":"384","author":"Cookson","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(17)58737-6","article-title":"Intracavitary Bacillus Calmette-Guerin in the Treatment of Superficial Bladder Tumors","volume":"116","author":"Morales","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"2397808","article-title":"Microorganisms in the Treatment of Cancer: Advantages and Limitations","volume":"2018","author":"Fol","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2796","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30512-8","article-title":"Bladder Cancer","volume":"388","author":"Kamat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, C.J., Nguyen, P.H.D., Wasser, M., Kumar, P., Lee, Y.H., Nasir, N.J.M., Chua, C., Lai, L., Hazirah, S.N., and Loh, J.J.H. (2021). Immunological Hallmarks for Clinical Response to BCG in Bladder Cancer. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.615091"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patwardhan, M.V., Kane, T.Q., Chiong, E., Rahmat, J.N., and Mahendran, R. (2024). Loss of Glutathione-S-Transferase Theta 2 (GSTT2) Modulates the Tumor Microenvironment and Response to BCG Immunotherapy in a Murine Orthotopic Model of Bladder Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252413296"},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"181","article-title":"BCG-Induced Interleukin-6 Upregulation and BCG Internalization in Well and Poorly Differentiated Human Bladder Cancer Cell Lines","volume":"9","author":"Bevers","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. Cytokine Netw."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00941903","article-title":"Role of Interleukin-8 in Onset of the Immune Response in Intravesical BCG Therapy for Superficial Bladder Cancer","volume":"25","author":"Somogyi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Urol. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2008.11.124","article-title":"Molecular Analyte Profiling of the Early Events and Tissue Conditioning Following Intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Therapy in Patients With Superficial Bladder Cancer","volume":"181","author":"Bisiaux","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-4666(02)00490-8","article-title":"Role of Th1 and Th2 Cytokines in BCG-Induced IFN-\u03b3 Production: Cytokine Promotion and Simulation of BCG Effect","volume":"21","author":"Luo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01741551","article-title":"Induction of Urinary Interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-2, IL-6, and Tumour Necrosis Factor during Intravesical Immunotherapy with Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin in Superficial Bladder Cancer","volume":"34","author":"Steerenberg","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ju.0000073852.24341.4a","article-title":"Immune Mechanisms in Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Immunotherapy for Superficial Bladder Cancer","volume":"170","author":"Brandau","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Melanoma of the Skin\u2014Cancer Stat Facts, Available online: https:\/\/seer.cancer.gov\/statfacts\/html\/melan.html."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.2147\/ITT.S134842","article-title":"Melanoma Treatment in Review","volume":"7","author":"Domingues","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunotargets Ther."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1097\/00000658-197410000-00029","article-title":"BCG Immunotherapy of Malignant Melanoma: Summary of a Seven-Year Experience","volume":"180","author":"Morton","year":"1974","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.15430\/JCP.23.036","article-title":"Efficacy of Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin in Cancer Prevention and Its Putative Mechanisms","volume":"29","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13037","article-title":"Clinical and Molecular Insights into BCG Immunotherapy for Melanoma","volume":"288","author":"Kremenovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7903","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-019-10057-0","article-title":"Mycobacterium Bovis BCG in Metastatic Melanoma Therapy","volume":"103","author":"Benitez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3991","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-017-6072-3","article-title":"Long-Term Survival after Complete Surgical Resection and Adjuvant Immunotherapy for Distant Melanoma Metastases","volume":"24","author":"Faries","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1097\/CJI.0b013e31827457bd","article-title":"Combined Intralesional Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) and Topical Imiquimod for In-Transit Melanoma","volume":"35","author":"Kidner","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16771","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000016771","article-title":"Immune Adjuvant Therapy Using Bacillus Calmette\u2013Gu\u00e9rin Cell Wall Skeleton (BCG-CWS) in Advanced Malignancies: A Phase 1 Study of Safety and Immunogenicity Assessments","volume":"98","author":"Nishida","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Jones, M.S., Irene Ramos, R., Chan, A.A., Lee, A.F., Foshag, L.J., Sieling, P.A., Faries, M.B., and Lee, D.J. (2017). Insights into Local Tumor Microenvironment Immune Factors Associated with Regression of Cutaneous Melanoma Metastases by Mycobacterium Bovis Bacille Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin. Front. Oncol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2017.00061"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borges, V.M., Marinho, F.V., Caldeira, C.V.A., de Queiroz, N.M.G.P., and Oliveira, S.C. (2024). Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Immunotherapy Induces an Efficient Antitumor Response to Control Murine Melanoma Depending on MyD88 Signaling. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1380069"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.35128","article-title":"Lung Cancer Statistics, 2023","volume":"130","author":"Kratzer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5223(19)40059-7","article-title":"Regional Immunotherapy with Intrapleural BCG for Lung Cancer. Surgical Considerations","volume":"72","author":"McKneally","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.36.11.870","article-title":"Postoperative Intrapleural BCG in Lung Cancer: Lack of Efficacy and Possible Enhancement of Tumour Growth","volume":"36","author":"Bakker","year":"1981","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00199131","article-title":"Post-Operative Intrapleural BCG in Lung Cancer: A 5-Year Follow-up Report","volume":"22","author":"Bakker","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(80)90551-6","article-title":"Intrapleural BCG in Operable Lung Cancer","volume":"315","author":"Lowe","year":"1980","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6090","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41768-8","article-title":"Intravenous Administration of BCG in Mice Promotes Natural Killer and T Cell-Mediated Antitumor Immunity in the Lung","volume":"14","author":"Moreo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"A1114","article-title":"1072 Intravenous BCG Administration in Mice Stimulates NK and T Cell-Mediated Antitumor Immunity in the Lung and Overcomes Resistance to Immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Lapieza","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6854","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2005.17.186","article-title":"Phase III Study of Adjuvant Vaccination With Bec2\/Bacille Calmette-Guerin in Responding Patients With Limited-Disease Small-Cell Lung Cancer (European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer 08971-08971B; Silva Study)","volume":"23","author":"Giaccone","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2008.06.036","article-title":"Symptom and Quality of Life Results of an International Randomised Phase III Study of Adjuvant Vaccination with Bec2\/BCG in Responding Patients with Limited Disease Small-Cell Lung Cancer","volume":"44","author":"Bottomley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2022.102266","article-title":"The Increasing Prevalence of Autoimmunity and Autoimmune Diseases: An Urgent Call to Action for Improved Understanding, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention","volume":"80","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-023-00720-1","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Disease","volume":"19","author":"Pisetsky","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37297","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000037297","article-title":"Review of Multiple Sclerosis: Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment","volume":"103","author":"Haki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1038\/1821106a0","article-title":"Prevention of Allergic Encephalomyelitis by Prior Injection of Adjuvants","volume":"182","author":"Kies","year":"1958","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.53.7.1588","article-title":"Use of Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"53","author":"Ristori","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2018.09.016","article-title":"Bridging the Gap between Vaccination with Bacille Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin (BCG) and Immunological Tolerance: The Cases of Type 1 Diabetes and Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"55","author":"Ristori","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000438216.93319.ab","article-title":"Effects of Bacille Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin after the First Demyelinating Event in the CNS","volume":"82","author":"Ristori","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"39","article-title":"Immunometabolic Profiling of T Cells from Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis Reveals an Impairment in Glycolysis and Mitochondrial Respiration","volume":"77","author":"Carbone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15290","article-title":"Bacillus Calmette\u2013Guerin Vaccination and Multiple Sclerosis: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study in Quebec, Canada","volume":"29","author":"Corsenac","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13050","article-title":"Benefits of BCG-Induced Metabolic Switch from Oxidative Phosphorylation to Aerobic Glycolysis in Autoimmune and Nervous System Diseases","volume":"288","author":"Faustman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(22)00218-2","article-title":"Global Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality of Type 1 Diabetes in 2021 with Projection to 2040: A Modelling Study","volume":"10","author":"Gregory","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-8227(90)90017-N","article-title":"Prevention of Overt Diabetes and Insulitis in NOD Mice by a Single BCG Vaccination","volume":"8","author":"Harada","year":"1990","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI12335","article-title":"Reversal of Established Autoimmune Diabetes by Restoration of Endogenous \u03b2 Cell Function","volume":"108","author":"Ryu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1088949","article-title":"Islet Regeneration during the Reversal of Autoimmune Diabetes in NOD Mice","volume":"302","author":"Kodama","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M.M., and McFadden, G. (2006). Modulation of Tumor Necrosis Factor by Microbial Pathogens. PLoS Pathog., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0020004"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faustman, D.L., Wang, L., Okubo, Y., Burger, D., Ban, L., Man, G., Zheng, H., Schoenfeld, D., Pompei, R., and Avruch, J. (2012). Proof-of-Concept, Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial of Bacillus-Calmette-Guerin for Treatment of Long-Term Type 1 Diabetes. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041756"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-018-0062-8","article-title":"Long-Term Reduction in Hyperglycemia in Advanced Type 1 Diabetes: The Value of Induced Aerobic Glycolysis with BCG Vaccinations","volume":"3","author":"Tran","year":"2018","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamshidi, P., Danaei, B., Mohammadzadeh, B., Arbabi, M., Nayebzade, A., Sechi, L.A., and Nasiri, M.J. (2023). BCG Vaccination and the Risk of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12040581"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100517","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity Evaluation of Recombinant BCG Vaccine against Respiratory Syncytial Virus in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase I Clinical Trial","volume":"27","author":"Abarca","year":"2020","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2023.02.014","article-title":"The Effect of BCG Vaccination on Infection and Antibody Levels against SARS-CoV-2-The Results of ProBCG: A Multicenter Randomized Clinical Trial in Brazil","volume":"130","author":"Santos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Czajka, H., Zapolnik, P., Krzych, \u0141., Kmiecik, W., Stopyra, L., Nowakowska, A., Jackowska, T., Darmochwa\u0142-Kolarz, D., Szyma\u0144ski, H., and Radziewicz-Winnicki, I. (2022). A Multi-Center, Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase III Clinical Trial Evaluating the Impact of BCG Re-Vaccination on the Incidence and Severity of SARS-CoV-2 Infections among Symptomatic Healthcare Professionals during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland\u2014First Results. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10020314"},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Efficacy and Safety of VPM1002 in Reducing SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Infection Rate and Severity|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04439045?term=NCT04439045&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Record History|NCT02114255|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02114255?tab=history."},{"key":"ref_132","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|BCG + MMC: Adding Mitomycin C to BCG in High-Risk, Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06462001?term=NCT06462001&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duarte, J.D.G., Parakh, S., Andrews, M.C., Woods, K., Pasam, A., Tutuka, C., Ostrouska, S., Blackburn, J.M., Behren, A., and Cebon, J. (2018). Autoantibodies May Predict Immune-Related Toxicity: Results from a Phase I Study of Intralesional Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin Followed by Ipilimumab in Patients with Advanced Metastatic Melanoma. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00411"},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Trial of Melaxin Cancer Vaccine Plus Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) to Treat Malignant Melanoma|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT00671554?term=NCT00671554&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Survival in a Randomized Phase III Trial in Patients With Limited Disease (LD) Small Cell Lung Cancer Vaccinated With Adjuvant BEC2 and BCG|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT00037713?term=NCT00037713&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Efficacy of Anti-Tubercular Vaccination in Multiple Sclerosis|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT00202410?term=NCT00202410&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Repeat BCG Vaccinations for the Treatment of New Onset Type 1 Diabetes in Children Age 8\u2013<18 Years|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05866536?term=NCT05866536&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Repeat BCG Vaccinations for the Treatment of Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05180591?term=NCT05180591&rank=1."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"(2024, November 22). Study Details|Repeat BCG Vaccinations for the Treatment of Established Type 1 Diabetes|ClinicalTrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT02081326?term=NCT02081326&rank=1."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/2\/196\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:35:17Z","timestamp":1760027717000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/2\/196"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"references-count":139,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens14020196"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens14020196","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]}}}