{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T05:33:01Z","timestamp":1789623181975,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741910400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"DHB Foundation","award":["1154389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1154389"]}]},{"name":"NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship","award":["1154389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1154389"]}]},{"name":"Dame Kate Campbell Fellowship","award":["1154389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1154389"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The health burden of ocular toxoplasmosis is substantial, and there is an unmet need for safe and curative anti-microbial drugs. One major barrier to research on new therapeutics is the lack of in vitro human-based models beyond two-dimensional cultured cells and tissue explants. We aimed to address this research gap by establishing a human retinal organoid model of ocular toxoplasmosis. Retinal organoids, generated from human induced pluripotent stem cells and grown to two stages of organization, were incubated with a suspension of live or heat-killed GT-1 strain T. gondii tachyzoites, or medium without tachyzoites. Both developing (1 month post-isolation) and matured (6 months post-isolation) organoids were susceptible to infection. Spread of live parasites from the margin to the entire organoid over 1 week was indicated by immunolabelling for T. gondii surface antigen 1. This progression was accompanied by changes in the levels of selected tachyzoite transcripts\u2014SAG1, GRA6, and ROP16\u2014and human cytokine transcripts\u2014CCL2, CXCL8, CXCL10, and IL6\u2014in infected versus control conditions. Our human retinal organoid model of ocular toxoplasmosis offers the opportunity for many future lines of study, including tachyzoite interactions with retinal cell populations and leukocyte subsets, parasite stage progression, and disease processes of different T. gondii strains, as well as drug testing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14030286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T13:07:51Z","timestamp":1741957671000},"page":"286","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Human Retinal Organoid Model of Ocular Toxoplasmosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3808-9763","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liam M.","family":"Ashander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1774-5944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grace E.","family":"Lidgerwood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0214-6498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda L.","family":"Lumsden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2490-5747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o M.","family":"Furtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Ophthalmology, Ribeir\u00e3o Preto Medical School, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Ribeir\u00e3o Preto 14049-900, S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice","family":"P\u00e9bay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4756-5493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justine R.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"898","article-title":"Global status of Toxoplasma gondii infection: Systematic review and prevalence snapshots","volume":"36","author":"Molan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. 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