{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:10:07Z","timestamp":1760058607508,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]],"date-time":"2025-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744588800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003448","name":"General Secretariat for Research and Innovation of the Greek Ministry of Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020\u03a3\u039501300001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\u03a3\u039501300001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003448","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>COVID-19 has caused millions of deaths globally; however, the characterization of molecular biomarkers of severe disease remains of great scientific importance. The aim of this study was to capture the transcriptional differences of the whole blood gene expression between COVID-19 patients with mild and severe disease, using Next Generation Sequencing technologies, on admission and after 7 days. The genes which were differentially expressed in severe compared to mild patients were used for Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis. Gene expression data were used to estimate the cell abundance of 22 immune cell types via digital cytometry. GO terms related to the response to molecules of bacterial origin, such as intestine-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS), were enriched, among other dysregulated pathways, which are well described as paramount mechanisms of severe manifestations of COVID-19. The neutrophil population increased in patients with severe disease, whereas the monocyte, CD8+ T cell, and activated Natural Killer (NK) cell populations were depleted. These cell population dynamics are also indicative of severe COVID-19 and intestinal bacterial translocation. This study elucidates the molecular basis of severe COVID-19 and highlights intestinal bacterial translocation as a potential driver of severe disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14040381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,15]],"date-time":"2025-04-15T03:59:06Z","timestamp":1744689546000},"page":"381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Blood Transcriptome Profiling Highlights the Role of Intestinal Bacterial Translocation in Severe COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8800-1701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios Christos","family":"Tremoulis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioinformatics and Applied Genomics Unit, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Vasilissis Sofias 127, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gethsimani","family":"Papadopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioinformatics and Applied Genomics Unit, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Vasilissis Sofias 127, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1543-2418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Pogka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioinformatics and Applied Genomics Unit, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Vasilissis Sofias 127, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9095-7724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aikaterini","family":"Argyraki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Clinic A, Sotiria Chest Diseases Hospital, Mesogion 152, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1734-2109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giota","family":"Lourida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Clinic A, Sotiria Chest Diseases Hospital, Mesogion 152, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Mentis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0841-9159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timokratis","family":"Karamitros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioinformatics and Applied Genomics Unit, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Vasilissis Sofias 127, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2023, December 18). 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