{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T09:37:13Z","timestamp":1778319433073,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":247,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]],"date-time":"2025-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the UNDP\/World Bank\/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases"},{"name":"the Volkswagenstiftung"},{"name":"the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)"},{"name":"European Community programmes"},{"name":"the Humboldt Foundation"},{"name":"the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review summarizes the interactions between Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, and its vectors, the triatomines, and highlights open questions. Four important facts should be emphasized at the outset: (1) The development of T. cruzi strains and their interactions with the mammalian host and the insect vector vary greatly. (2) Only about 10 of over 150 triatomine species have been studied for their interactions with the protozoan parasite. (3) The use of laboratory strains of triatomines makes generalizations difficult, as maintenance conditions influence the interactions. (4) The intestinal microbiota is involved in the interactions, but the mutualistic symbionts, Actinomycetales, have so far only been identified in four species of triatomines. The effects of the vector on T. cruzi are reflected in a different colonization ability of T. cruzi in different triatomine species. In addition, the conditions in the intestine lead to strong multiplication in the posterior midgut and rectum, with infectious metacyclic trypomastigotes developing almost exclusively in the latter. Starvation and feeding of the vector induce the development of certain stages of T. cruzi. The negative effects of T. cruzi on the triatomines depend on the T. cruzi strain and are particularly evident when the triatomines are stressed. The intestinal immunity of the triatomines responds to ingested blood-stage trypomastigotes of some T. cruzi strains and affects many intestinal bacteria, but not all and not the mutualistic symbionts. The specific interaction between T. cruzi and the bacteria is evident after the knockdown of antimicrobial peptides: the number of non-symbiotic bacteria increases and the number of T. cruzi decreases. In long-term infections, the suppression of intestinal immunity is indicated by the growth of specific microbiota.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14040392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]],"date-time":"2025-04-17T06:53:46Z","timestamp":1744872826000},"page":"392","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Trypanosoma cruzi\/Triatomine Interactions\u2014A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6468-8762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G\u00fcnter A.","family":"Schaub","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoology\/Parasitology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universit\u00e4tsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02761909000200008","article-title":"Nova trypanozomiaze humana. \u00dcber eine neue Trypanosomiasis des Menschen","volume":"1","author":"Chagas","year":"1909","journal-title":"Mem. 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