{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T17:54:28Z","timestamp":1783014868690,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Agency of Medical Research and Development (AMED)","award":["JP253fa627004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP253fa627004"]}]},{"name":"Japan Agency of Medical Research and Development (AMED)","award":["24jm0210114h0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24jm0210114h0001"]}]},{"name":"Japan Agency of Medical Research and Development (AMED)","award":["24K10246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K10246"]}]},{"name":"Japanese Society of Promotion and Science (JSPS)","award":["JP253fa627004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP253fa627004"]}]},{"name":"Japanese Society of Promotion and Science (JSPS)","award":["24jm0210114h0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24jm0210114h0001"]}]},{"name":"Japanese Society of Promotion and Science (JSPS)","award":["24K10246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K10246"]}]},{"name":"SDGs Research Project of Shimane University","award":["JP253fa627004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP253fa627004"]}]},{"name":"SDGs Research Project of Shimane University","award":["24jm0210114h0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24jm0210114h0001"]}]},{"name":"SDGs Research Project of Shimane University","award":["24K10246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K10246"]}]},{"name":"Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)","award":["JP253fa627004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP253fa627004"]}]},{"name":"Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)","award":["24jm0210114h0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24jm0210114h0001"]}]},{"name":"Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)","award":["24K10246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K10246"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Natural products possess a wide range of biological and biochemical potentials, with plant-derived compounds being significant sources for discovering new drugs. In this study, extracts of Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius prepared with different solvents were tested for their antiviral activity against the original SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain and its variants using plaque assay, quantitative real time RT-PCR, and immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Our results showed that at their maximum non-toxic concentrations, Vitex-Dichloromethane (DCM) and Macaranga extracts significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain growth in Vero E6 cells, showing a 5-log reduction in plaque assay and confirmed by IFA. Meanwhile, Vitex-Hexane showed moderate activity with a 2-log decrease. The inhibition was shown in a dose-dependent manner. The antiviral efficacy of these extracts was further demonstrated against various SARS-CoV-2 variants including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron. Both Vitex-DCM and Macaranga showed strong virucidal activity. In addition, Vitex-DCM and Macaranga inhibited the transcriptional activity of purified SARS-CoV-2 RdRp, indicating that RdRp inhibition may contribute to viral suppression as shown at the post-infection stage. Furthermore, combining Vitex-DCM or Macaranga with remdesivir showed a synergistic effect against SARS-CoV-2. These results suggest that Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius extracts are promising candidates for anti-SARS-CoV-2 treatments. Their synergy with remdesivir also underscores the potential of drug combinations in fighting SARS-CoV-2 and preventing the emergence of mutant variants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14080820","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T07:56:06Z","timestamp":1755590166000},"page":"820","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Antiviral Activity of Medicinal Plant Extracts Vitex negundo and Macaranga tanarius Against SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Muhareva","family":"Raekiansyah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Viral Vaccine Development, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8986-6307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mya Myat","family":"Ngwe Tun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Viral Vaccine Development, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"},{"name":"Center for Vaccines and Therapeutic Antibodies for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shimane University, Izumo 690-8504, Japan"},{"name":"DEJIMA Infectious Diseases Research Alliance, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2082-4325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Ang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1375-5579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephani Joy","family":"Macalino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6257-7292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junie","family":"Billones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6706-438X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuki","family":"Takamatsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Urano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Vaccines and Therapeutic Antibodies for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shimane University, Izumo 690-8504, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9786-0626","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lyre Anni E.","family":"Murao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Science and Environmental Studies, College of Science and Mathematics, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Davao 8000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noel","family":"Quiming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8391-1157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kouichi","family":"Morita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Viral Vaccine Development, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"},{"name":"Center for Vaccines and Therapeutic Antibodies for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shimane University, Izumo 690-8504, Japan"},{"name":"DEJIMA Infectious Diseases Research Alliance, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1107-1108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Constancia","family":"Carrillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1038\/423240a","article-title":"Aetiology: Koch\u2019s postulates fulfilled for SARS virus","volume":"423","author":"Fouchier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25678","article-title":"Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: The mystery and the 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