{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,9]],"date-time":"2026-08-09T01:11:54Z","timestamp":1786237914642,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Clinical \u201c4310\u201d Project of the University of South China","award":["20224310NHYCG02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224310NHYCG02"]}]},{"name":"Clinical \u201c4310\u201d Project of the University of South China","award":["202010041571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202010041571"]}]},{"name":"Clinical \u201c4310\u201d Project of the University of South China","award":["2024JK2118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JK2118"]}]},{"name":"Hengyang Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases","award":["20224310NHYCG02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224310NHYCG02"]}]},{"name":"Hengyang Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases","award":["202010041571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202010041571"]}]},{"name":"Hengyang Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases","award":["2024JK2118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JK2118"]}]},{"name":"Key research and development (R&amp;D) of Hunan Province","award":["20224310NHYCG02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224310NHYCG02"]}]},{"name":"Key research and development (R&amp;D) of Hunan Province","award":["202010041571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202010041571"]}]},{"name":"Key research and development (R&amp;D) of Hunan Province","award":["2024JK2118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JK2118"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neutrophils are the most abundant immune cells in the human body. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have recently garnered significant attention as a novel, non-traditional mechanism for combating pathogenic microorganisms. Recent studies have shown that NETs play a crucial role in antiviral immunity, providing new perspectives on how neutrophils defend against viral invasion. Viruses not only induce NET formation through various mechanisms but have also developed multiple escape strategies targeting NETs. It is worth noting that NETs are a double-edged sword for the host: while they possess antiviral effects that inhibit viral spread and replication, their constituent components may also exacerbate tissue damage and play important pathological roles in the progression of certain viral infections. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the regulatory mechanisms and dynamic balance of NETs in viral infections is of critical importance. Additionally, since the components of NETs may vary depending on the stimulus, NET-related markers have the potential to serve as biomarkers for the severity and prognosis of viral diseases. This article provides a systematic review of the induction mechanisms, antiviral effects, viral escape strategies, and virus-induced NET-related immunopathological damage in viral infections, offering new insights for antiviral immunotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14101018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T08:22:08Z","timestamp":1759911728000},"page":"1018","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Viral Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7450-4585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiajun","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-Incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rong","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-Incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jirong","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-Incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shilu","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-Incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2637-564X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenbo","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Medical Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2690-2665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuangquan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-Incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kraus, R.F., and Gruber, M.A. (2021). Neutrophils\u2014From Bone Marrow to First-Line Defense of the Innate Immune System. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.767175"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.02.038","article-title":"The role of neutrophils in host defense and disease","volume":"145","author":"Lehman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.05.015","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Mediate a Host Defense Response to Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1","volume":"12","author":"Saitoh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092385","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Kill Bacteria","volume":"303","author":"Brinkmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2018.03.020","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in fungal infection","volume":"89","author":"Urban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omar, M., and Abdelal, H. (2023). NETosis in Parasitic Infections: A Puzzle That Remains Unsolved. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24108975"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01933-x","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in homeostasis and disease","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-020520-111016","article-title":"Cellular Mechanisms of NETosis","volume":"36","author":"Thiam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7326","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1909546117","article-title":"NETosis proceeds by cytoskeleton and endomembrane disassembly and PAD4-mediated chromatin decondensation and nuclear envelope rupture","volume":"117","author":"Thiam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgener, S.S., and Schroder, K. (2020). Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Host Defense. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol., 12.","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a037028"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.02.007","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Confine Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ocular Biofilms and Restrict Brain Invasion","volume":"25","author":"Thanabalasuriar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.105","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease","volume":"18","author":"Papayannopoulos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0735-5","article-title":"Lentiviral gene therapy for X-linked chronic granulomatous disease","volume":"26","author":"Kohn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2009-05-221606","article-title":"Restoration of NET formation by gene therapy in CGD controls aspergillosis","volume":"114","author":"Bianchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azzouz, D., and Palaniyar, N. (2023). Mitochondrial ROS and base excision repair steps leading to DNA nick formation drive ultraviolet induced-NETosis. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1198716"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-024-01239-2","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps promote acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury in mice via AIM2","volume":"45","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7023","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-51211-1","article-title":"Piezo1 expression in neutrophils regulates shear-induced NETosis","volume":"15","author":"Baratchi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2817","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1414055112","article-title":"SK3 channel and mitochondrial ROS mediate NADPH oxidase-independent NETosis induced by calcium influx","volume":"112","author":"Douda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2847","article-title":"Infection-induced NETosis is a dynamic process involving neutrophil multitasking in vivo","volume":"18","author":"Yipp","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2918","article-title":"Anuclear neutrophils keep hunting","volume":"18","author":"Peschel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2016.0036","article-title":"Eosinophils Regulate Interferon Alpha Production in Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Stimulated with Components of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps","volume":"37","author":"Zabieglo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Interferon Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3150","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1103414","article-title":"T Lymphocyte Priming by Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Links Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses","volume":"188","author":"Tillack","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, J., Yuan, C., Yang, S., Ma, Z., Li, W., Mao, L., Jiao, P., and Liu, W. (2024). The role of reactive oxygen species in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection-induced cell death. Cell. Mol. Biol. Lett., 29.","DOI":"10.1186\/s11658-024-00659-6"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.-J., Carestia, A., McDonald, B., Zucoloto, A.Z., Grosjean, H., Davis, R.P., Turk, M., Naumenko, V., Antoniak, S., and Mackman, N. (2021). Platelet-Mediated NET Release Amplifies Coagulopathy and Drives Lung Pathology During Severe Influenza Infection. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.772859"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2021.21.e16","article-title":"Nucleocapsid and Spike Proteins of SARS-CoV-2 Drive Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation","volume":"21","author":"Youn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, N.B.F., Fantone, K.M., Sarr, D., Ashtiwi, N.M., Channell, S., Grenfell, R.F.Q., Martins-Filho, O.A., and Rada, B. (2023). Variant-dependent oxidative and cytokine responses of human neutrophils to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and anti-spike IgG1 antibodies. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1255003"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiroki, C.H., Toller-Kawahisa, J.E., Fumagalli, M.J., Colon, D.F., Figueiredo, L.T.M., Fonseca, B.A.L.D., Franca, R.F.O., and Cunha, F.Q. (2020). Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Effectively Control Acute Chikungunya Virus Infection. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.03108"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funchal, G.A., Jaeger, N., Czepielewski, R.S., Machado, M.S., Muraro, S.P., Stein, R.T., Bonorino, C.B.C., and Porto, B.N. (2015). Respiratory Syncytial Virus Fusion Protein Promotes TLR-4\u2013Dependent Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation by Human Neutrophils. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124082"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23126","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202201904R","article-title":"Peripheral nervous system is injured by neutrophil extracellular traps (NETS) elicited by nonstructural (NS) protein-1 from Zika virus","volume":"37","author":"Rochael","year":"2023","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno De Lara, L., Werner, A., Borchers, A., Carrillo-Salinas, F.J., Marmol, W., Parthasarathy, S., Iyer, V., Vogell, A., Illanes, D., and Abad\u00eda-Molina, A.C. (2023). Aging dysregulates neutrophil extracellular trap formation in response to HIV in blood and genital tissues. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1256182"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-018-0045-0","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps prevent HIV infection in the female genital tract","volume":"11","author":"Barr","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20131092","article-title":"\u03b22 integrin mediates hantavirus-induced release of neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"211","author":"Raftery","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1097\/HEP.0000000000000868","article-title":"NK-cell\u2013elicited gasdermin-D\u2013dependent hepatocyte pyroptosis induces neutrophil extracellular traps that facilitate HBV-related acute-on-chronic liver failure","volume":"81","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/cac2.12388","article-title":"Elevated neutrophil extracellular traps by HBV-mediated S100A9-TLR4\/RAGE-ROS cascade facilitate the growth and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"43","author":"Zhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2022.07.014","article-title":"FGL2\u2013MCOLN3-Autophagy Axis\u2013Triggered Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Exacerbate Liver Injury in Fulminant Viral Hepatitis","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzang, B.-S., Chin, H.-Y., Tzang, C.-C., Chuang, P.-H., Chen, D.-Y., and Hsu, T.-C. (2024). Parvovirus B19 Infection Is Associated with the Formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps and Thrombosis: A Possible Linkage of the VP1 Unique Region. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25189917"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2021.09.024","article-title":"Host inflammatory response is the major marker of severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in older adults","volume":"83","author":"Lui","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12155","article-title":"Increased cytokine\/chemokines in serum from asthmatic and non-asthmatic patients with viral respiratory infection","volume":"8","author":"Giuffrida","year":"2014","journal-title":"Influenza Resp. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e138900","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.138900","article-title":"Alveolar barrier disruption in varicella pneumonia is associated with neutrophil extracellular trap formation","volume":"5","author":"Ouwendijk","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2023.07.002","article-title":"IL-33-induced neutrophilic inflammation and NETosis underlie rhinovirus-triggered exacerbations of asthma","volume":"16","author":"Curren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxz070","article-title":"ZBP1 governs the inflammasome-independent IL-1\u03b1 and neutrophil inflammation that play a dual role in anti-influenza virus immunity","volume":"32","author":"Momota","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schrottmaier, W.C., Schmuckenschlager, A., Pirabe, A., and Assinger, A. (2022). Platelets in Viral Infections\u2014Brave Soldiers or Trojan Horses. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.856713"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1080\/09537104.2021.1921722","article-title":"Platelets in dengue infection: More than a numbers game","volume":"33","author":"Andrade","year":"2022","journal-title":"Platelets"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-018-0024-0","article-title":"NETosis, complement, and coagulation: A triangular relationship","volume":"16","author":"Boelens","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garishah, F.M., Rother, N., Riswari, S.F., Alisjahbana, B., Overheul, G.J., Van Rij, R.P., Van Der Ven, A., Van Der Vlag, J., and De Mast, Q. (2021). Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Dengue Are Mainly Generated NOX-Independently. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.629167"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10360-4","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles from CLEC2-activated platelets enhance dengue virus-induced lethality via CLEC5A\/TLR2","volume":"10","author":"Sung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sung, P.-S., and Hsieh, S.-L. (2021). C-type lectins and extracellular vesicles in virus-induced NETosis. J. Biomed. Sci., 28.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-021-00741-7"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20201129","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20201129","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2\u2013triggered neutrophil extracellular traps mediate COVID-19 pathology","volume":"217","author":"Veras","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5557","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-49933-3","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps-inspired DNA hydrogel for wound hemostatic adjuvant","volume":"15","author":"Ye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)34665-9","article-title":"Divalent cation modulation of fibronectin binding to heparin and to DNA","volume":"257","author":"Hayashi","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12136","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)38997-4","article-title":"Primary structure of a DNA- and heparin-binding domain (Domain III) in human plasma fibronectin","volume":"260","author":"Calaycay","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001159","article-title":"Extracellular histones identified in crocodile blood inhibit in-vitro HIV-1 infection","volume":"30","author":"Kozlowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Silva Pinto, L., Junior, R.S.A., Lopes, B.R.P., Da Silva, G.S., De Lima Menezes, G., Moreira, P., De Oliveira, J., Da Silva, R.A., Lousa, D., and Toledo, K.A. (2024). MPO interacts with hRSV particles, contributing to the virucidal effects of NETs against clinical and laboratory hRSV isolates. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 283.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.137423"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2018.04.001","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps possess anti-human respiratory syncytial virus activity: Possible interaction with the viral F protein","volume":"251","author":"Souza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diniz, L.F.A., Matsuba, B.K., Souza, P.S.S., Lopes, B.R.P., Kubo, L.H., Oliveira, J., and Toledo, K.A. (2023). Effects of neutrophil extracellular traps during human respiratory syncytial virus infection in vitro. Braz. J. Biol., 83.","DOI":"10.1590\/1519-6984.248717"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2022-0091","article-title":"Extracellular histones as damage-associated molecular patterns in neuroinflammatory responses","volume":"34","author":"Richards","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wahid, A., Chen, W., Wang, X., and Tang, X. (2021). High-mobility group box 1 serves as an inflammation driver of cardiovascular disease. Biomed. Pharmacother., 139.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111555"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(06)70577-1","article-title":"The two faces of interleukin 10 in human infectious diseases","volume":"6","author":"Mege","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s11906-020-01047-z","article-title":"The Role of Neutrophils and Their Extracellular Traps in the Synergy of Pre-eclampsia and HIV Infection","volume":"22","author":"Moodley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2173142","article-title":"Expression of Interleukin-10 Activity by Epstein-Barr Virus Protein BCRF1","volume":"250","author":"Hsu","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.4.1695","article-title":"Human cytomegalovirus harbors its own unique IL-10 homolog (cmvIL-10)","volume":"97","author":"Kotenko","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1800871","article-title":"Hepatitis B Virus Inhibits Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Release by Modulating Reactive Oxygen Species Production and Autophagy","volume":"202","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, W., Sun, S., Wang, Y., Zhao, R., Ren, H., Li, Z., Zhao, H., Zhang, Y., Sheng, J., and Chen, Z. (2021). Circulating Neutrophil Dysfunction in HBV-Related Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.620365"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12437","article-title":"Metabolic requirements for neutrophil extracellular traps formation","volume":"145","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1159\/000440723","article-title":"Dengue Virus Serotype-2 Interferes with the Formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps","volume":"58","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109462","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus uses the ArlRS and MgrA cascade to regulate immune evasion during skin infection","volume":"36","author":"Kwiecinski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3946","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw143","article-title":"Structural characterization of the virulence factor Sda1 nuclease from Streptococcus pyogenes","volume":"44","author":"Moon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0405-x","article-title":"Hypoxia-induced human deoxyribonuclease I is a cellular restriction factor of hepatitis B virus","volume":"4","author":"Hallez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4258","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27009","article-title":"Coronavirus genomic nsp14-ExoN, structure, role, mechanism, and potential application as a drug target","volume":"93","author":"Tahir","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01557-12","article-title":"mRNA Decay during Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Infections: Mutations That Affect Translation of an mRNA Influence the Sites at Which It Is Cleaved by the HSV Virion Host Shutoff (Vhs) Protein","volume":"87","author":"Shiflett","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khaperskyy, D.A., Schmaling, S., Larkins-Ford, J., McCormick, C., and Gaglia, M.M. (2016). Selective Degradation of Host RNA Polymerase II Transcripts by Influenza A Virus PA-X Host Shutoff Protein. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005427"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5744","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkr111","article-title":"Crystal structure of a KSHV\u2013SOX\u2013DNA complex: Insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying DNase activity and host shutoff","volume":"39","author":"Briggs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2017.12.024","article-title":"An \u201cOld\u201d protein with a new story: Coronavirus endoribonuclease is important for evading host antiviral defenses","volume":"517","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torres-Ruiz, J., Alcal\u00e1-Carmona, B., Alejandre-Aguilar, R., and G\u00f3mez-Mart\u00edn, D. (2023). Inflammatory myopathies and beyond: The dual role of neutrophils in muscle damage and regeneration. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1113214"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e325","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.325","article-title":"The double-edged role of neutrophil heterogeneity in inflammatory diseases and cancers","volume":"4","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scozzi, D., Liao, F., Krupnick, A.S., Kreisel, D., and Gelman, A.E. (2022). The role of neutrophil extracellular traps in acute lung injury. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.953195"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2021.108516","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) and COVID-19: A new frontiers for therapeutic modality","volume":"104","author":"Alexiou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pccm.2023.10.004","article-title":"A crucial role of neutrophil extracellular traps in pulmonary infectious diseases","volume":"2","author":"Pan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J. Pulm. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szturmowicz, M., and Demkow, U. (2021). Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) in Severe SARS-CoV-2 Lung Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22168854"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafqat, A., Omer, M.H., Albalkhi, I., Alabdul Razzak, G., Abdulkader, H., Abdul Rab, S., Sabbah, B.N., Alkattan, K., and Yaqinuddin, A. (2023). Neutrophil extracellular traps and long COVID. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1254310"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"21","article-title":"Neutrophil Markers as Predictors of COVID-19 Severity at Hospital Admission: A Cross-sectional Study","volume":"24","author":"Vahabi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Iran. J. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020007008","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps contribute to immunothrombosis in COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"136","author":"Middleton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Englert, H., Rangaswamy, C., Deppermann, C., Sperhake, J.-P., Krisp, C., Schreier, D., Gordon, E., Konrath, S., Haddad, M., and Pula, G. (2021). Defective NET clearance contributes to sustained FXII activation in COVID-19-associated pulmonary thrombo-inflammation. eBioMedicine, 67.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103382"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.123.323897","article-title":"NETosis Drives Blood Pressure Elevation and Vascular Dysfunction in Hypertension","volume":"134","author":"Krishnan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2274","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.13493","article-title":"Histones link inflammation and thrombosis through the induction of Weibel\u2013Palade body exocytosis","volume":"14","author":"Michels","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2015.10.012","article-title":"Extracellular histones induce tissue factor expression in vascular endothelial cells via TLR and activation of NF-\u03baB and AP-1","volume":"137","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, J., Qiao, S., Liu, J., Li, W., Wang, F., Gao, X., Tian, J., Wang, N., Zhang, J., and Dong, J. (2022). Neutrophil extracellular traps promote thrombogenicity in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Cell Biosci., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-022-00845-z"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2184","article-title":"Reciprocal coupling of coagulation and innate immunity via neutrophil serine proteases","volume":"16","author":"Massberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1952","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-03-343061","article-title":"Extracellular histones promote thrombin generation through platelet-dependent mechanisms: Involvement of platelet TLR2 and TLR4","volume":"118","author":"Semeraro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-4838(89)90140-4","article-title":"Native fibrin gel networks observed by 3D microscopy, permeation and turbidity","volume":"997","author":"Carlsson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Protein Struct. Mol. Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2019.08.003","article-title":"Networks that stop the flow: A fresh look at fibrin and neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"182","author":"Kolev","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2016-09-741298","article-title":"Platelets and neutrophil extracellular traps collaborate to promote intravascular coagulation during sepsis in mice","volume":"129","author":"McDonald","year":"2017","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.120.315267","article-title":"Circulating Markers of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Are of Prognostic Value in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"41","author":"Ng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtha.2023.04.044","article-title":"Recombinant human DNase-I improves acute respiratory distress syndrome via neutrophil extracellular trap degradation","volume":"21","author":"Jarrahi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4660","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps cause airway obstruction during respiratory syncytial virus disease","volume":"238","author":"Cortjens","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00478-0","article-title":"Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in children younger than 5 years in 2019: A systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2017-210289","article-title":"Local dornase alfa treatment reduces NETs-induced airway obstruction during severe RSV infection","volume":"73","author":"Cortjens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2021.110323","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in a randomized controlled trial of a combination of antiviral and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory treatment in a bovine model of respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"241","author":"Mutua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-024-01270-w","article-title":"Clinical description and outcome of overall varicella-zoster virus-related organ dysfunctions admitted in intensive care units: The VAZOREA cohort study","volume":"14","author":"Malherbe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12575","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and severity of influenza infections by virus type, subtype, and lineage: A systematic literature review","volume":"12","author":"Caini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Influenza Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix475","article-title":"High Level of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Correlates with Poor Prognosis of Severe Influenza A Infection","volume":"217","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa241","article-title":"Circulating Rather Than Alveolar Extracellular Deoxyribonucleic Acid Levels Predict Outcomes in Influenza","volume":"222","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.03.00103202","article-title":"Varicella pneumonia in adults","volume":"21","author":"Mohsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2024.113368","article-title":"Regulating NETs contributes to a novel antiatherogenic effect of MTHSWD via inhibiting endothelial injury and apoptosis","volume":"143","author":"Shao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiestas Sol\u00f3rzano, V.E., Da Costa Faria, N.R., Dos Santos, C.F., Corr\u00eaa, G., Cipitelli, M.D.C., Dornelas Ribeiro, M., De Souza, L.J., Damasco, P.V., Da Cunha, R.V., and Dos Santos, F.B. (2021). Different Profiles of Cytokines, Chemokines and Coagulation Mediators Associated with Severity in Brazilian Patients Infected with Dengue Virus. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13091789"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2180951","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2023.2180951","article-title":"Immune mechanisms of group B coxsackievirus induced viral myocarditis","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3331","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvac052","article-title":"Neutrophil inhibition improves acute inflammation in a murine model of viral myocarditis","volume":"118","author":"Carai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kao, J.-H. (2021). Pathology of Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection and HBV-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Hepatitis B Virus and Liver Disease, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-3615-8"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Shi, K., Zhu, B., Feng, Y., Liu, Y., and Wang, X. (2024). Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Scores Predict 90-Day Mortality in Hepatitis B-Related Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12092048"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2546","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30571","article-title":"The Antiresection Activity of the X Protein Encoded by Hepatitis Virus B","volume":"69","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hepatology"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/10\/1018\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:50:15Z","timestamp":1760035815000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/10\/1018"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens14101018"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens14101018","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]}}}