{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T22:30:14Z","timestamp":1782513014984,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Medical Biological Defense Research Program of the Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacillus anthracis is the etiological agent of the zoonotic disease anthrax. The pathogen has colonized many regions of all inhabited continents. Increasing evidence points to a strong contribution of anthropogenic activities (trade) in this almost global spread. This article contributes further genomic data from 21 B. anthracis strains, including 19 isolated in Germany, aiming to support and detail the human role in anthrax dispersal. The newly sequenced genomes belong to the B. anthracis lineage predominant in China. This lineage is remarkable because of its phylogenetic structure. A polytomy with nine branches radiating from a central node was identified by whole-genome single-nucleotide polymorphism (wgSNP) analysis. Strains from Germany populate two among the nine branches. Detailed analysis of the polytomy indicates that it most likely emerged in China. We propose that the polytomy is the result of the import of contaminated animal products in a limited spatiotemporal frame, followed by the distribution of these products to different locations within China, where new B. anthracis lineages then became independently established. Currently available data point to Bengal as a likely geographic source of the original contamination, and the history of trade exchanges between Bengal and China agrees with the early fifteenth century as a likely time period. The subsequent exports to Germany would have occurred during the 19th century according to German trade history. Notably, Germany has been experiencing localized anthrax outbreaks from this trade heritage up into the 21st century.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14101041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T10:37:14Z","timestamp":1760438234000},"page":"1041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Bacillus anthracis Phylogeography: Origin of the East Asian Polytomy and Impact of International Trade for Its near Global Dispersal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0913-194X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gilles","family":"Vergnaud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), University Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4013-8808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus H.","family":"Antwerpen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology (IMB), 80937 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8002-7718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregor","family":"Grass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology (IMB), 80937 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Turnbull, P.C. 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