{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T10:06:49Z","timestamp":1788602809099,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]],"date-time":"2025-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763769600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chewing lice are among the most significant ectoparasites affecting poultry, causing irritation, anemia, and reduced productivity, thereby posing economic and welfare challenges for poultry farmers. Their impact is particularly pronounced in sub-Saharan Africa, where poultry production is predominantly free-range with limited biosecurity, which increases exposure to infestation. This review was conducted to determine the epidemiology of chewing lice species of poultry in sub-Saharan African countries. A search of peer-reviewed literature on the epidemiology of chewing lice species of poultry was conducted on four electronic databases from 1990 to 2024. Nineteen species of chewing lice, namely Menacanthus stramineus, Menacanthus cornutus, Menacanthus pallidulus, Menopon gallinae, Lipeurus caponis, Lipeurus tropicalis, Gallacanthus cornutus, Goniocotes gigas, Goniocotes gallinae, Goniocotes hologaster, Goniodes gigas, Goniodes meleagridis, Goniodes gallinae, Goniodes dissimilis, Cuclotogaster heterographus, Stenocrotaphus gigas, Columbicola columbae, Chelopistes meleagridis, and Amyrsidea powelli, were reported from six poultry species distributed across ten African countries. The identification of the chewing lice species was primarily based on microscopic examination of the morphological features, which resulted in the exclusion of some studies that failed to identify lice to the species level. Poultry species infested included chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), ducks (Anas platyrhynchos), guinea fowls (Numida meleagridis), pigeons (Columba livia), and geese (Anser cygnoides). Nigeria recorded the highest number of chewing lice species. The genus Goniodes showed the highest species diversity, and M. stramineus was the most predominant species, reported in nine of the ten reviewed countries. Infestations were mostly reported in chickens compared to other poultry species, and the prevalence ranged from 1.28% in chickens in Ethiopia to 100% in chickens from Zimbabwe. Results from this review provide valuable insights into the species diversity and regional distribution patterns of chewing lice fauna, highlighting their dispersion and host associations. The review will serve as a valuable resource in the design of effective and sustainable prevention and control strategies of chewing lice, especially in free-range chickens reared by resource-poor communities in sub-Saharan Africa.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14121192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:02:07Z","timestamp":1763974927000},"page":"1192","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Epidemiology of Chewing Lice (Phthiraptera: Mallophaga) Fauna of Poultry in Sub-Saharan Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0536-8854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silindokuhle","family":"Mlondo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2625-2954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danisile","family":"Tembe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6188-4204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mokgadi Pulane","family":"Malatji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6843-1497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samson","family":"Mukaratirwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"},{"name":"One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.4314\/njpar.v38i1.7","article-title":"Ectoparasites of chickens in Wukari Local Government Area of Taraba State, North-East Nigeria","volume":"38","author":"Shitta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Niger. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"10","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasite infestation in chicken in and around Ambo Town","volume":"5","author":"Tamiru","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethiopia. J. Vet. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"A survey on disease prevalence, ectoparasite infestation and chick mortality in poultry populations of Kenya","volume":"28","author":"Ogada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Livest. Res. Rural Dev."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"264","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites in Haramaya University intensive poultry farm","volume":"7","author":"Amede","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Vet."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"11","article-title":"Assessment of ectoparasitic infestation in chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in the Sunyani west district, Ghana","volume":"34","author":"Aboagye","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"87","article-title":"Prevalence of the major ectoparasites of poultry in extensive and intensive farms in Jimma, Southwestern Ethiopia","volume":"10","author":"Mata","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Parasitol. Vector Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2016.12.003","article-title":"Eimeria species occurrence varies between geographic regions and poultry production systems and may influence parasite genetic diversity","volume":"233","author":"Prakashbabu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"18","article-title":"Study on prevalence of ectoparasites of poultry in and around Jimma town","volume":"9","author":"Kebede","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2656.1999.00297.x","article-title":"Host resources govern the specificity of swiftlet lice: Size matters","volume":"68","author":"Tompkins","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, K.P., Clayton, D.H., Price, R.D., Hellenthal, R.A., and Palma, R.L. (2003). The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview, Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.154191"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Study on prevalence of Ectoparasites in poultry managed under backyard system in Mareka Woreda of Dawuro zone, Snnpr, Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Tessema","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Permin, A., and Hansen, J.W. (1998). Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Poultry Parasites, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Mullen, G.R., and Durden, L.A. (2009). Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.22271\/veterinary.2022.v7.i6a.447","article-title":"Ectoparasites of free ranging local chickens in urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro municipality, Tanzania","volume":"7","author":"Materu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ectoparasites and intestinal helminths of speckled pigeon (Columba guinea Hartlaub and Finsch 1870) in Zaria, Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"Adang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v80i3.200","article-title":"A survey of ectoparasites, cestodes and management of free-range indigenous chickens in rural Zimbabwe","volume":"80","author":"Mukaratirwa","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"85","article-title":"Prevalence of chewing lice in free-range chickens from selected rural localities of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa","volume":"10","author":"Mukaratirwa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Res. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"de Roest, C.H. (2014). Prevalence of Ectoparasites on Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in the Mnisi Area of Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Ultretch University]."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"21","article-title":"Prevalence and seasonal fluctuations of ectoparasites infesting backyard turkeys, Meleagris gallopavo, in Sokoto, Northwestern Nigeria","volume":"70","author":"Fabiyi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anim. Husb. Vet. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.55126\/ijzab.2024.v09.i03.004","article-title":"Diversity of ectoparasites of Gallus domesticus, NGOU 1990 (hens) and Numida meleagris, Linnaeus 1758 (Guinea fowl) reared in extensive system in the commune of Loumbila, Burkina Faso","volume":"9","author":"Zoundi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"173","article-title":"Preliminary survey of ectoparasites infesting chickens (Gallus domesticus) in four areas of Sokoto Metropolis","volume":"19","author":"Bala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Niger. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/ajriz\/2019\/v2i430077","article-title":"Study on the prevalence of ectoparasitic arthropods on free-range Gallus domesticus in two communities in Awka","volume":"2","author":"Nwadike","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asian J. Res. Zool."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Urquhart, G., Armour, J., Duncan, J.L., Dunn, A.M., and Jennings, F. (1987). Veterinary Parasitology, Churchill Livingstone Inc."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"3163","article-title":"Prevalence and diversity of ectoparasites in scavenging chickens (Gallus domesticus) and their association to body weight","volume":"21","author":"Sudiana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biodiversitas"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"123","article-title":"A preliminary survey on the parasites of free-range chicken in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Ekpo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nat. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.22259\/2637-5354.0101002","article-title":"Ectoparasites infestation and its associated risk factors in village chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in and around Potiskum, Yobe State, Nigeria","volume":"1","author":"Lawal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anim. Husb. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"A survey of ectoparasites in the free-range domestic fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus. Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria","volume":"2","author":"Bassey","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Bio Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.4314\/sokjvs.v20i4.2","article-title":"Ectoparasitic fauna of poultry species in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria","volume":"20","author":"Luka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sokoto J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.4314\/evj.v19i2.2","article-title":"Ectoparasite infestation of free scavenging chickens reared under traditional backyard production system in Wolayita Zone, southern Ethiopia","volume":"19","author":"Zeryehun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ethiop. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"11","article-title":"Ectoparasitosis in domesticated turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in Jere Area, Borno State, Nigeria","volume":"5","author":"Rabana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Vet. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"100772","article-title":"Prevalence and clinical signs of chewing lice in local chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Menoua Division, Western highlands of Cameroon","volume":"34","author":"Kouam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"69","article-title":"Survey on the Prevalence of Ectoparasite Infestation on Domestic Fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758) Sold in Keffi Market, Nasarawa State, Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"Abubakar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Health Wellness Saf. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"433","article-title":"The prevalence of lice and fleas of chicken in Bokkos local government area of plateau State, Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"Malau","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. J. Pure Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"17","article-title":"Economic importance and widespread of ectoparasites infestation in indigenous chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). A study from selected local government councils and states in Nigeria","volume":"72","author":"Ahaotu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Agri. Food Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"69","article-title":"Ectoparasites of local scavenging chickens of central Ethiopia","volume":"28","author":"Ashenafi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ethiop. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"537","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites in backyard local chickens in three agroecologic zones of East Shoa, Ethiopia","volume":"160","author":"Belihu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"533","article-title":"Prevalence of External parasite of poultry in intensive and backyard chicken farm at Wolayta Soddo town, Southern Ethiopia","volume":"3","author":"Mekuria","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.3923\/ijps.2010.911.915","article-title":"A study of scavenging poultry gastrointestinal and ecto-parasites in rural areas of Matebeleland Province, Zimbabwe","volume":"9","author":"Dube","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1454","article-title":"Ectoparasites of indigenous Malawi chickens","volume":"5","author":"Banda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"209","article-title":"A study of ecto-and endo parasites of domestic birds in Etsako Municipality, Edo North of Nigeria","volume":"11","author":"Edosomwan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Niger. Soc. Exp. Biol. J."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"01","article-title":"Major constraints of village poultry production in Demba Gofa District of Southern Region, Ethiopia","volume":"2","author":"Mulugeta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"2136","article-title":"Prevalence of lice and fleas in backyard chickens of Bishoftu Town, Ethiopia","volume":"15","author":"Alemu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"94","article-title":"Prevalence and economic significance of ectoparasites infestation in village chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Gombe, Northeastern Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"Lawal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Direct Res. J. Agric. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"35","article-title":"A study of the prevalence and abundance of chewing lice (Phthiraptera) in selected poultry farms in Benin City, Edo State","volume":"1","author":"Love","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Anim. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"28","article-title":"Ecto-and endo-parasites of domestic birds in Owan west, east and Akoko-Edo in Edo state of Nigeria","volume":"3","author":"Edosomwan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Zool. Stud."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"92","article-title":"Ectoparasites found on intensively-reared chickens at semi-urban Emene in south-Eastern Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"Okechukwu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"41","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites infestation of chicken in three poultry farms in Awka","volume":"3","author":"Onyekachi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Asian Basic Appl. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ectoparasites and gastrointestinal helminth of domestic pigeons in Awka, southeastern Nigeria","volume":"11","author":"Nwadike","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosci. J."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"100884","article-title":"Identification and estimation of the prevalence of ectoparasites of backyard chicken in Boloso Sore District, Wolaita zone, Southern Ethiopia","volume":"42","author":"Endale","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"240","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites in poultry in Ebinat District, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Maru","year":"2023","journal-title":"Daagu Int. J. Basic Appl. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(02)00024-7","article-title":"Ecto-, endo-and haemoparasites in free-range chickens in the Goromonzi District in Zimbabwe","volume":"54","author":"Permin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"140","article-title":"Ecto-parasites of Domestic Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Gwagwalada Area Council, Abuja, Nigeria-West Africa","volume":"51","author":"Odenu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alex. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"74","article-title":"Ectoparasites and haemoparasites of chickens in Sokoto, Northewestern Nigeria","volume":"1","author":"Usman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.4314\/bajopas.v7i1.26","article-title":"Prevalence of Bird Louse, Menacanthus cornutus (Pthiraptera: Amblycera) In Four Selected Poultry Farms in Kano State, Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"Audi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-007-9068-3","article-title":"Prevalence of parasites of the local scavenging chickens in a selected semi-arid zone of Eastern Kenya","volume":"40","author":"Mungube","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"693","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites in free-range backyard chicken flocks in northeast Algeria","volume":"52","author":"Nahal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Stanica"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.33899\/ijvs.2024.152866.3841","article-title":"Incidence and morphological study of lice infested chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Nineveh governorate, Iraq","volume":"39","author":"Mohammed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Iraqi J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1017\/S004393390700147X","article-title":"Overview of chicken taxonomy and domestication","volume":"63","author":"Khalil","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. World\u2019s Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manyelo, T.G., Selaledi, L., Hassan, Z.M., and Mabelebele, M. (2020). Local chicken breeds of Africa: Their description, uses and conservation methods. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10122257"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0275852","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0275852","article-title":"Assessment of poultry rearing practices and risk factors of H5N1 and H9N2 virus circulating among backyard chickens and ducks in rural communities","volume":"17","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2010-00962","article-title":"Hen welfare in different housing systems","volume":"90","author":"Lay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Poult. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474549","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1474549","article-title":"Predisposition factors and control strategies of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli in laying hens","volume":"11","author":"Waliaula","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Nair, S.S., Gouge, D.H., and Murillo, A.C. (2021). Backyard Chickens and Ectoparasites: Introduction and Management, The University of Arizona."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/12\/1192\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:32:06Z","timestamp":1763976726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/14\/12\/1192"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens14121192"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens14121192","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]}}}