{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:00:34Z","timestamp":1787029234558,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":160,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, which affects 6\u20137 million people worldwide. Although the possibility of oral transmission was first scientifically suggested in 1913, it was not until 1968 that the first confirmed cases of human infection via food consumption were reported. This long gap contributed to the widespread perception that oral transmission was a rare or incidental event. Over the past two decades, significant advances have been made in understanding the biological and clinical aspects of oral transmission, including the molecular mechanisms by which metacyclic trypomastigotes establish infection via the digestive route. Experimental studies in murine models have further deepened our knowledge of the biology and pathogenesis of oral infection. Concurrently, multiple outbreaks of T. cruzi infection through contaminated food and beverages have been reported across Latin America, providing valuable insights into the molecular epidemiology and clinical characteristics of this transmission route. Moreover, experimental evidence has shown that the consumption of meat from animals infected during the acute phase can also lead to T. cruzi infection, highlighting carnivory as a potential alternative transmission mechanism. This review aims to comprehensively analyze oral infection by T. cruzi, considering clinical and epidemiological data, parasite biology, and findings from murine experimental models. Strategies for controlling foodborne transmission of Chagas disease are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15010047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T11:11:46Z","timestamp":1767352306000},"page":"47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Oral Route Infection by Trypanosoma cruzi: From the Beginning to the Present Day"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sebasti\u00e1n","family":"Zambrano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kurt","family":"Montoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Avalos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bessy","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1313-5014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan","family":"San Francisco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"},{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Santo Tom\u00e1s University, Antofagasta 1243161, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9333-8729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"Vega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Concepci\u00f3n, Concepci\u00f3n 4070409, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3719-944X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"},{"name":"Center for Immunology and Biomedical Biotechnology of Antofagasta, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02761909000200008","article-title":"Nova tripanozomiaze humana: Estudos sobre a morfolojia e o ciclo evolutivo do Schizotrypanum cruzi n. gen., n. sp., ajente etiolojico de nova entidade morbida do homem","volume":"1","author":"Chagas","year":"1909","journal-title":"Mem. 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