{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T20:34:30Z","timestamp":1769459670904,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parasite extracellular vesicles (EVs) are concise and versatile messages for parasite\u2013parasite and parasite\u2013host crosstalk. These vesicles are loaded with a cargo of diverse heterogeneous molecules, some of which are of potent immunomodulatory nature, and others have specific functions. Those EVs carrying the Trichinella signature are no exception. They play pivotal roles in the establishment of the parasite inside its niche within the host, ensuring better survival for both. They can also serve as biomarkers for diagnosis, follow-up, and prognosis of Trichinella infection. Owing to their immunogenicity and durability, they are excellent candidates for vaccine development. Moreover, enriched by the parasite\u2019s elements, these intriguing EVs could protect the host from a wide array of inflammatory conditions associated with immune dysregulation such as inflammatory bowel disease and airway hyperreactivity, as evidenced by well-conducted experimental preclinical research. In sum, the potentials of Trichinella EVs seem enormous, awaiting only to be better characterized and conditioned for use in diagnostics and therapeutics. Detailed proteomic and transcriptomic analyses of the nature of these parasite-derived elements could provide invaluable insights into parasite biology and its interplay with the host at the same time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15020136","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T10:24:36Z","timestamp":1769423076000},"page":"136","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Trichinella-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Implications and Future Prospects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7782-0774","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dalia S.","family":"Ashour","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmad A.","family":"Othman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hager S.","family":"Zoghroban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mir, B., and Goettsch, C. (2020). Extracellular vesicles as delivery vehicles of specific cellular cargo. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9071601"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cuesta, C.M., Guerri, C., Ure\u00f1a, J., and Pascual, M. (2021). Role of microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles in gut-brain communication. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22084235"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27066","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.27066","article-title":"Biological properties of extracellular vesicles and their physiological functions","volume":"4","author":"Siljander","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pathol.1.110304.100151","article-title":"Proteases in parasitic diseases","volume":"1","author":"McKerrow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2012.11.011","article-title":"Immunomodulation by helminth parasites: Defining mechanisms and mediators","volume":"43","author":"McSorley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1948","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.06014-11","article-title":"Membrane vesicle release in bacteria, eukaryotes, and archaea: A conserved yet under-appreciated aspect of microbial life","volume":"80","author":"Deatherage","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1038\/nri855","article-title":"Exosomes: Composition, biogenesis and function","volume":"2","author":"Zitvogel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ov\u010dar, A., and Kova\u010di\u010d, B. (2024). Biogenesis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and the potential use of embryo-derived EVs in medically assisted reproduction. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26010042"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535750","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2018.1535750","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): A position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines","volume":"7","author":"Witwer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Z., Wang, L., Li, J., Wang, L., Wu, Z., and Sun, X. (2019). Extracellular vesicle-mediated communication within host-parasite interactions. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.03066"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2023.01.002","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and nanoparticles: Emerging complexities","volume":"33","author":"Jeppesen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s40580-024-00431-8","article-title":"Nanoplasmonic sensors for extracellular vesicles and bacterial membrane vesicles","volume":"11","author":"Neettiyath","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Converg."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6917","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S264498","article-title":"Exosome: A review of its classification, isolation techniques, storage, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4019","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200400876","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of melanoma-derived exosomes by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry","volume":"4","author":"Mears","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5238","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-3804","article-title":"Heat shock protein 70 surface-positive tumor exosomes stimulate migratory and cytolytic activity of natural killer cells","volume":"65","author":"Gastpar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3097","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201600368RR","article-title":"Monocyte exosomes induce adhesion molecules and cytokines via activation of NF-\u03baB in endothelial cells","volume":"30","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcilla, A., Trelis, M., Cort\u00e9s, A., Sotillo, J., Cantalapiedra, F., Minguez, M.T., Valero, M.L., S\u00e1nchez del Pino, M.M., Mu\u00f1oz-Antoli, C., and Toledo, R. (2012). Extracellular vesicles from parasitic helminths contain specific excretory\/secretory proteins and are internalized in intestinal host cells. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045974"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2023.105147","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles secreted by Echinococcus multilocularis: Important players in angiogenesis promotion","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2023.11.007","article-title":"Plasmodium falciparum ring-stage plasticity and drug resistance","volume":"40","author":"Platon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2621","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.24249","article-title":"Induction of myeloid-derived suppressor cells by tumor exosomes","volume":"124","author":"Xiang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"179486","article-title":"Exosome in tumour microenvironment: Overview of the crosstalk between normal and cancer cells","volume":"2014","author":"Fernandes","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2017.03.001","article-title":"Lipids in exosomes: Current knowledge and the way forward","volume":"66","author":"Skotland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.5483\/BMBRep.2014.47.10.164","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as emerging intercellular communicasomes","volume":"47","author":"Yoon","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMB Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30741","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v5.30741","article-title":"Plasmalogen enrichment in exosomes secreted by a nematode parasite versus those derived from its mouse host: Implications for exosome stability and biology","volume":"5","author":"Simbari","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2020.04.010","article-title":"The protein and microRNA cargo of extracellular vesicles from parasitic helminths\u2014Current status and research priorities","volume":"50","author":"Sotillo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0854.2010.01041.x","article-title":"Cellular internalization of exosomes occurs through phagocytosis","volume":"11","author":"Feng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Traffic"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulcahy, L.A., Pink, R.C., and Carter, D.R. (2014). Routes and mechanisms of extracellular vesicle uptake. J. Extracell. Vesicles, 3.","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v3.24641"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00026-08","article-title":"Epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of trichinellosis","volume":"22","author":"Gottstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e250044","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760250044","article-title":"Patients with Trichinella spiralis infection display unmodified antigen-specific immune response to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"120","author":"Mitic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12665","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12665","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae release extracellular vesicles with immunomodulatory properties","volume":"41","author":"Vasilev","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2022.e00164","article-title":"Trichinella-induced immunomodulation: Another tale of helminth success","volume":"27","author":"Bruschi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ftac040","DOI":"10.1093\/femspd\/ftac040","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis-derived extracellular vesicles induce a protective immunity against larval challenge in mice","volume":"80","author":"Ashour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010528","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010528","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles from Trichinella spiralis: Proteomic analysis and protective immunity","volume":"16","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-022-01108-y","article-title":"Effects of exosomes derived from Trichinella spiralis infective larvae on intestinal epithelial barrier function","volume":"53","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2025.01.008","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis extracellular vesicles induce anti-inflammatory and regulatory immune responses in vitro","volume":"55","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Liu, L., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Shi, H., Jia, W., Zhu, H., Jia, H., Liu, M., and Bai, X. (2020). Extracellular vesicles derived from Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae ameliorate tnbs-induced colitis in mice. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01174"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Liao, Y., Li, D., Zhu, Z., Zhang, L., Wu, Z., He, P., and Wang, L. (2022). Extracellular vesicles derived from Trichinella Spiralis larvae promote the polarization of macrophages to M2b type and inhibit the activation of fibroblasts. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.974332"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2020.05.008","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis secretes abundant unencapsulated small RNAs with potential effects on host gene expression","volume":"50","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khueangchiangkhwang, S., Wu, Z., Hosoda-Yabe, R., Yabe, T., Okamoto, T., Takada, C., Okada, H., Ogura, S., and Maekawa, Y. (2023). Trichinella spiralis secretes stage-specific extracellular vesicles for modulating host microenvironment for parasitism. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.08.02.551739"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"225","article-title":"Isolation, identification, and omics analysis of extracellular vesicles from Trichinella spiralis newborn larvae","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Parasitol. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"176","article-title":"Immunoproteomic analysis on the soluble antigens of Trichinella spiralis newborn larvae","volume":"41","author":"Hao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. J. Parasitol. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28665","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.28665","article-title":"Protein and small non-coding RNA-enriched extracellular vesicles are released by the pathogenic blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"4","author":"Nowacki","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-023-06013-7","article-title":"Identification of antigens in the Trichinella spiralis extracellular vesicles for serological detection of early stage infection in swine","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2009.01.003","article-title":"Molecular cloning and characterization of heat shock protein 70 from Trichinella spiralis","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-005-1365-z","article-title":"Molecular cloning and functional expression of enolase from Trichinella spiralis","volume":"96","author":"Nakada","year":"2005","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0641-8","article-title":"Immunoproteomic profile of Trichinella spiralis adult worm proteins recognized by early infection sera","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2016.07.008","article-title":"Immunomodulatory potential of particular Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae excretory-secretory components","volume":"46","author":"Cvetkovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2012.01.017","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis infection induces \u03b2-actin co-localized with thymosin \u03b24","volume":"187","author":"Kang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Jiang, X., Bao, J., Wang, Y., Liu, H., and Tang, L. (2018). Exosomes in pathogen infections: A bridge to deliver molecules and link functions. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00090"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-022-01032-1","article-title":"Proteases secreted by Trichinella spiralis intestinal infective larvae damage the junctions of the intestinal epithelial cell monolayer and mediate larval invasion","volume":"53","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morales-Montor, J., Hugo Del R\u00edo-Araiza, V., and Hernand\u00e9z-Bello, R. (2022). Perspective chapter: Advances in the development of anti-Trichinella spiralis vaccine, challenges, and future Prospective. Parasitic Helminths and Zoonoses\u2014From Basic to Applied Research, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.98178"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1111\/imcb.12369","article-title":"miR-142-5p and miR-130a-3p regulate pulmonary macrophage polarization and asthma airway remodeling","volume":"98","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1111\/imcb.12477","article-title":"The emerging role of microRNA in regulating the mTOR signaling pathway in immune and inflammatory responses","volume":"99","author":"Nazari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32925","DOI":"10.1038\/srep32925","article-title":"miR-24, miR-30b and miR-142-3p interfere with antigen processing and presentation by primary macrophages and dendritic cells","volume":"6","author":"Naqvi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8911","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.102346","article-title":"Immature dendritic cells derived exosomes promotes immune tolerance by regulating T cell differentiation in renal transplantation","volume":"11","author":"Pang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785738","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2020.1785738","article-title":"Sja-miR-71a in Schistosome egg-derived extracellular vesicles suppresses liver fibrosis caused by schistosomiasis via targeting semaphorin 4D","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.05.001","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles from a helminth parasite suppress macrophage activation and constitute an effective vaccine for protective immunity","volume":"19","author":"Coakley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Groot, M., and Lee, H. (2020). Sorting mechanisms for microRNAs into extracellular vesicles and their associated diseases. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9041044"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2023.12.003","article-title":"The knowns and unknowns of helminth-host miRNA cross-kingdom communication","volume":"40","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bio060096","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.060096","article-title":"Identification of proteins that bind extracellular microRNAs secreted by the parasitic nematode Trichinella spiralis","volume":"12","author":"Brown","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Open"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-023-01186-6","article-title":"Exosome-delivered miR-153 from Trichinella spiralis promotes apoptosis of intestinal epithelial cells by downregulating Bcl2","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2013.01.044","article-title":"Trichinella: What is going on during nurse cell formation?","volume":"194","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2012.03.011","article-title":"Muscle satellite cells are primed for myogenesis but maintain quiescence with sequestration of Myf5 mRNA targeted by microRNA-31 in mRNP granules","volume":"11","author":"Crist","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-012-8287-5","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis: Shaping the immune response","volume":"52","author":"Ilic","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1586\/1744666X.2013.811187","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis immunomodulation: An interactive multifactorial process","volume":"9","author":"Ashour","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, N., Liu, X., Tang, B., Wang, L., Shi, H.N., Boireau, P., Liu, M., and Bai, X. (2017). Recombinant Trichinella pseudospiralis serine protease inhibitors alter macrophage polarization in vitro. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01834"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2011.08.004","article-title":"The impact of Trichinella spiralis excretory-secretory products on dendritic cells","volume":"34","author":"Ilic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2010.10.004","article-title":"Trichinella spiralis: Infection reduces airway allergic inflammation in mice","volume":"127","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X13000059","article-title":"Interactions between Trichinella spiralis infection and induced colitis in mice","volume":"88","author":"Ashour","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-017-5544-5","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of helminths in autoimmune diseases: Helminth-derived immune-regulators and immune balance","volume":"116","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43057-1","article-title":"Adoptive transfer of Trichinella spiralis-activated macrophages can ameliorate both Th1- and Th2 activated inflammation in murine models","volume":"9","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"504","article-title":"Protective effect of excretory-secretory protein from adult Trichinella spiralis on ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis in mice","volume":"31","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. J. Schistosomiasis Control"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiad518","article-title":"Immunosuppressive ability of Trichinella spiralis adults can ameliorate type 2 inflammation in a murine allergy model","volume":"229","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105761","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles derived from Trichinella spiralis prevent colitis by inhibiting M1 macrophage polarization","volume":"213","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Tropica"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glamo\u010dlija, S., Sablji\u0107, L., Schmid, A., Radulovi\u0107, N., Gruden-Movsesijan, A., Vasilev, S., Ini\u0107-Kanada, A., Wiedermann, U., Schabussova, I., and Kosanovi\u0107, M. (2025). Trichinella spiralis-derived extracellular vesicles induce regulatory T cells and reduce airway allergy in mice. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1637569"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/112_2016_7","article-title":"Exosomes: From functions in hostpathogen interactions and immunity to diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"172","author":"Carriere","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2009.06.014","article-title":"Echinococcus multilocularis: Proteomic analysis of the protoscoleces by two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry","volume":"123","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190067","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0067","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in infectious diseases caused by protozoan parasites in buffaloes","volume":"26","author":"Altei","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Venom. Anim. Toxins Incl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.043","article-title":"Communication by extracellular vesicles: Where we are and where we need to go","volume":"164","author":"Tkach","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70","DOI":"10.1002\/jex2.70","article-title":"GMP-compliant manufacturing of biologically active cell-derived vesicles produced by extrusion technology","volume":"1","author":"Lau","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thawornkuno, C., Nogrado, K., Adisakwattana, P., Thiangtrongjit, T., and Reamtong, O. (2022). Identification and profiling of Trichinella spiralis circulating antigens and proteins in sera of mice with trichinellosis. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265013"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/20041113","article-title":"International Commission on Trichinellosis: Recommendations on the use of serological tests for the detection of Trichinella infection in animals and man","volume":"11","author":"Gamble","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2012.11.001","article-title":"Detection of circulating antigen in serum of mice infected with Trichinella spiralis by an IgY-IgM mAb sandwich ELISA","volume":"133","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2020.109111","article-title":"Trichinella infectivity and antibody response in experimentally infected pigs","volume":"297","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2020.107867","article-title":"Early diagnosis of experimental Trichinella spiralis infection by nano-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (nano-based ELISA)","volume":"212","author":"Gomaa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Maurer, M., Chkhaydem, E., Blaizot, A., Estevez, L., Destouches, D., and Vall\u00e9e, I. (September, January 30). Enrichment and characterization of muscle extracellular vesicles (EVs) during Trichinella spiralis infection in mice. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Trichinellosis, Belgrade, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-020-00758-0","article-title":"Comparative expression profiles of host circulating miRNAs in response to Trichinella spiralis infection","volume":"51","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2023.110075","article-title":"miRNA based biomarkers for the early diagnosis of Echinococcus granulosus in experimentally infected dogs","volume":"324","author":"Celik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khater, H., Govindarajan, M., and Benelli, G. (2017). Vaccination against Trichinella spiralis: Potential, limitations and future directions. Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/63275"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3886","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b08015","article-title":"Evidence-based clinical use of nanoscale extracellular vesicles in nanomedicine","volume":"10","author":"Fais","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"61","article-title":"Developmental regulation of genes encoding universal stress proteins in Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"5","author":"Isokpehi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gene Regul. Syst. Biol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12536","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12536","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles induce protective immunity against Trichuris muris","volume":"40","author":"Shears","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697028","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2019.1697028","article-title":"Quality and efficiency assessment of six extracellular vesicle isolation methods by nano-flow cytometry","volume":"9","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3183","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.52570","article-title":"Engineering exosomes for targeted drug delivery","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3612","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c10689","article-title":"Microbubbles versus extracellular vesicles as therapeutic cargo for targeting drug delivery","volume":"15","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.4252\/wjsc.v13.i6.659","article-title":"Heat shock protein 20 promotes sirtuin 1-dependent cell proliferation in induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"13","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2023.115054","article-title":"Vasculature organotropism in drug delivery","volume":"201","author":"Amruta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Logozzi, M., De Milito, A., Lugini, L., Borghi, M., Calabr\u00f2, L., Spada, M., Perdicchio, M., Marino, M.L., Federici, C., and Iessi, E. (2009). High levels of exosomes expressing CD63 and caveolin-1 in plasma of melanoma patients. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0005219"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.ctm.2024.07.003","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as biomarkers in parasitic disease diagnosis","volume":"94","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Membr."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Syromiatnikova, V., Prokopeva, A., and Gomzikova, M. (2022). Methods of the Large-Scale Production of Extracellular Vesicles. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231810522"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8545347","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8545347","article-title":"Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles: General Methodologies and Latest Trends","volume":"2018","author":"Konoshenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12140","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12140","article-title":"Formation of a protein corona on the surface of extracellular vesicles in blood plasma","volume":"10","author":"Visnovitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-024-03757-4","article-title":"Quality and Safety Considerations for Therapeutic Products Based on Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"41","author":"Takakura","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"147","article-title":"Bottleneck limitations for microRNA-based therapeutics from bench to the bedside","volume":"70","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Die Pharm."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S288859","article-title":"The Risks of miRNA Therapeutics: In a Drug Target Perspective","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Des. Devel. Ther."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vesic.2025.100080","article-title":"MicroRNAs won the Nobel Prize. Now, can extracellular vesicles help them become drugs?","volume":"5","author":"Rosas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Extracell. Vesicle"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, A., Weber, J.I., Dur\u00e3es-Oliveira, J., Moreno, C., Ferla, M., Aires Pereira, M., Val\u00e9rio-Bolas, A., Freitas, B.E., Nunes, T., and Antunes, W.T. (2025). Extracellular vesicles derived from Trypanosomatids: The key to decoding host-parasite communication. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26094302"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murphy, A., Cwiklinski, K., Lalor, R., O\u2019Connell, B., Robinson, M.W., Gerlach, J., Joshi, L., Kilcoyne, M., Dalton, J.P., and O\u2019Neill, S.M. (2020). Fasciola hepatica extracellular vesicles isolated from excretory-secretory products using a gravity flow method modulate dendritic cell phenotype and activity. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008626"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12404","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12404","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches","volume":"13","author":"Welsh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15330338211041203","DOI":"10.1177\/15330338211041203","article-title":"Diagnostic and Therapeutic Potential of Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"20","author":"Kodam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Technol. Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2020.1748758","article-title":"Prospects and challenges of extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery system: Considering cell source","volume":"27","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-019-0158-7","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: A new communication paradigm?","volume":"20","author":"Raposo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"066","article-title":"Clinical relevance of RNA editing to early detection of cancer in human","volume":"7","author":"Ullah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2019.100979","article-title":"Emerging role of stem cell-derived extracellular microRNAs in age-associated human diseases and in different therapies of longevity","volume":"57","author":"Ullah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliott, R.O., and He, M. (2021). Unlocking the Power of Exosomes for Crossing Biological Barriers in Drug Delivery. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13010122"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14322","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14725-x","article-title":"Bioinspired Cell-Derived Nanovesicles versus Exosomes as Drug Delivery Systems: A Cost-Effective Alternative","volume":"7","author":"Goh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.21608\/puj.2024.324103.1270","article-title":"Allopurinol and Albendazole efficacy against trichinosis in experimentally-infected mice","volume":"17","author":"Adel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasitol. United J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2016.07.006","article-title":"Modulation of tissue tropism and biological activity of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles: New nanotools for cancer treatment","volume":"111","author":"Kooijmans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.21945","article-title":"Exosome theranostics: Biology and translational medicine","volume":"8","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.2174\/1389450119666180521100409","article-title":"Exosomes in therapy: Engineering, pharmacokinetics and future applications","volume":"20","author":"Arenaccio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Drug. Targets"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/2\/136\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T10:40:04Z","timestamp":1769424004000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/2\/136"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]]},"references-count":120,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15020136"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15020136","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]]}}}