{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T15:21:01Z","timestamp":1772637661026,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772496000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Plastic pollutants, including phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and microplastics (MPs), are increasingly recognized as emerging environmental cofactors that intersect with infectious disease dynamics. These compounds, once considered inert, can alter immune function, reshape host\u2013pathogen interactions, and directly influence viral survival and transmission. In this review, we compile current evidence on the chemistry, environmental occurrence, and biological activity of major plastic-associated pollutants with emphasis on their role in viral infections. Phthalates such as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and its metabolite MEHP modulate innate immune signaling and have been shown to exacerbate infections, including Dengue and Coxsackievirus B3. Other DEHP-like phthalates, such as dibutyl phthalate (DBP), exhibit consistent infection-enhancing effects, while high molecular weight or cyclical phthalates such as polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP) display conflicting results in their modulation of viral infections. BPA, widely detected in human tissues, acts through endocrine and immune disruption, worsening viral myocarditis, and altering influenza outcomes. PFAS, persistent \u201cforever chemicals,\u201d reshape adaptive immune responses and are associated with increased susceptibility, viral persistence, or severity of infection of herpesvirus (HCMV, EBV, HSV-1), hepatitis virus, and influenza infection. Microplastics represent a distinct risk by acting as physical carriers for viruses and bacteria, stabilizing viral RNA, enhancing host cell uptake, and skewing immune responses. Together, these pollutants extend beyond toxicology into virology, providing novel insights into how environmental exposures converge with viral pathogenesis. We highlight mechanistic advances and critical knowledge gaps and propose future directions for integrating environmental health and infectious disease research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15030270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T12:48:56Z","timestamp":1772542136000},"page":"270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Plastic-Derived Pollutants as Emerging Modifiers of Viral Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Fatima","family":"Hisam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ramina","family":"Kordbacheh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2973-8952","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ebenezer","family":"Senu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6707-990X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Spandan","family":"Mukherjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2567-3223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jon","family":"Sin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9079-1090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erica L.","family":"Sanchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Sciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"OECD (2022). 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