{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T15:21:07Z","timestamp":1772637667471,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remains a serious public health concern, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) continues to limit treatment options. This laboratory-based comparative study evaluated antibiotic resistance patterns and nanoparticle (NP) susceptibility among 110 S. aureus isolates recovered from human skin and soft tissue infections (n = 80) and camel milk (n = 30). Proteomic identification utilizing matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was carried out for all isolates under study. Phenotypic differentiation between MRSA and methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) was performed via the cefoxitin disk diffusion method, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out using the disk diffusion method as stated in international guidelines. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was defined by established criteria. The antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was detected by broth microdilution to determine minimum inhibitory concentration values (MIC50 and MIC90). The ability to develop reduced susceptibility was evaluated through ten serial sub-inhibitory passages followed by stability testing without using nanoparticles. MRSA prevalence was 52.5% among human isolates and 70% among camel milk isolates. Overall, 56.4% of isolates met MDR criteria, with a significantly higher MDR rate among MRSA compared with MSSA. Both human and camel isolates showed similar resistance patterns. AgNPs exhibited strong antibacterial activity, with MIC50 and MIC90 values of 0.0078 mg\/mL and 0.0156 mg\/mL, respectively; nevertheless, AuNPs demonstrated higher MIC values. Response to NPs was similar between isolates, independent of methicillin resistance or MDR. Serial sub-inhibitory exposure resulted in increased MIC values in all tested isolates, and stable resistance persisted in 50% of cases. These results indicate ongoing MRSA circulation in human and animal settings and reinforce the need for careful and controlled use of NP-based antimicrobials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15030277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T08:51:33Z","timestamp":1772614293000},"page":"277","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multidrug Resistance and Adaptive Response to Silver and Gold Nanoparticles in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Human and Animal Sources"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1699-6263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eman","family":"Marzouk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6666, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mai","family":"Ibrahem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1591-5572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuha","family":"Anajirih","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Emergency Services Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al-Qunfudah 21912, Makkah, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sulaiman","family":"Anagreyyah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Family Medicine Department, King Fahad Armed Hospital, Jeddah 23311, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Khalid","family":"Alamri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Department, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh 12233, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saleh","family":"Alamri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Department, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh 12233, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bader","family":"Al Hassoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Department, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh 12233, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4412-3515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelmaged","family":"Draz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Safiyah","family":"Alzahrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7726-9532","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayman","family":"Elbehiry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6666, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: A systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11387","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2023.11387","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)","volume":"80","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glmedi.2024.100081","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Impacts, challenges, and future prospects","volume":"2","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Surg. 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