{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T11:56:52Z","timestamp":1773230212313,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Botulism is a neuroparalytic disease caused by exposure to botulinum neurotoxins produced by anaerobic spore-forming bacteria of the genus Clostridium. This disease occurs in both humans and wild and domestic animals, and is currently becoming an increasingly serious problem worldwide due to high animal mortality and economic losses. The clinical signs observed during the progression of botulism are nonspecific and difficult to unequivocally associate with this disease entity. The aim of this study is to present laboratory diagnostics of suspected botulism cases reported in Poland in 2022\u20132024, as well as to present the challenges encountered during laboratory investigations. The material for the study consisted of samples of liver, serum, digestive tract, feed, feces, straw, and water from drinking lines, sent to the National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) in relation to thirteen suspected cases of botulism, predominantly reported in poultry, but also in mink and cattle farms. The samples were analyzed using a mouse bioassay and conventional culture methods, as well as real-time PCR methods aimed at detecting the ntnh and bont genes, which determine the production of botulinum neurotoxins. Of the thirteen suspected cases analyzed, ten were confirmed by the detection of botulinum toxin (BoNTs) and\/or the presence of the ntnh and bont genes in the tested material. Based on the results obtained, it was concluded that botulinum toxin type C was the etiological factor of botulism poisoning in most of the analyzed cases. In one case reported in cattle, poisoning occurred as a result of the mosaic variant of BoNT D\/C. Due to the nonspecific signs of botulism and the time required for them to appear, laboratory diagnostics play a key role in detecting the disease. However, this process is complicated due to the high heterogeneity observed among Clostridium spp. strains, as well as difficulties encountered during the isolation of the microorganism and the possibility of loss of toxin-producing capacity at later stages of analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15030302","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T14:45:39Z","timestamp":1773153939000},"page":"302","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Laboratory Diagnostics of Botulism Cases in Livestock in Poland in 2022\u20132024"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5808-2051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Jarosz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Feed Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w Ave. 57, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Sapa\u0142a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Feed Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w Ave. 57, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4619-128X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Grenda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Feed Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w Ave. 57, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2012.11.011","article-title":"Botulinum neurotoxins: Mechanism of action","volume":"67","author":"Tighe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2911(09)05503-9","article-title":"Biology and genomic analysis of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"55","author":"Peck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. 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