{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:50:11Z","timestamp":1785419411880,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Committee of Science of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["BR218004\/0223"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BR218004\/0223"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Equine trypanosomosis remains an important veterinary concern in regions where horses play a significant economic and cultural role. In Kazakhstan, comprehensive nationwide data on the seroepidemiological status of equine trypanosomes are limited. The aim of this study was to assess the serological distribution of equine trypanosomosis across all administrative regions of Kazakhstan using complement fixation testing (CFT). A total of 6065 equine serum samples were collected from seventeen regions between 2023 and 2025. Antibodies against members of the Trypanozoon subgenus were detected using a WOAH-recommended CFT protocol. Overall seropositivity was 4.73%, with substantial regional variation ranging from 0% to 16.52%. Statistically significant differences in seroprevalence were observed between regions (p &lt; 0.001), and mixed-effects modelling indicated considerable regional clustering. PCR testing of seropositive samples did not confirm the presence of Trypanosoma equiperdum, while one sample tested positive for Trypanosoma evansi. These findings suggest that CFT seropositivity reflects exposure to equine trypanosomes rather than confirmed dourine infection. Given the inability of CFT to reliably distinguish between T. equiperdum and T. evansi, species-level attribution remains uncertain. This study provides the first nationwide overview of serological reactivity to equine trypanosomes in Kazakhstan. The results highlight regional heterogeneity in antibody detection and underscore the need for expanded molecular surveillance and improved species-specific diagnostic tools to clarify the epidemiological status of equine trypanosomosis in the country.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15030303","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T09:00:37Z","timestamp":1773219637000},"page":"303","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Nationwide Serological Survey of Equine Trypanosomosis in Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7039-5621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ainur","family":"Nurpeisova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhadra","family":"Kudaibergenova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Kazakh National Agrarian Research University NJSC, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roza","family":"Aitlessova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bolat","family":"Shalabayev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4145-1775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maksat","family":"Serikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Altynai","family":"Arysbekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Makay","family":"Zheney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nuray","family":"Ibraim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kobeikhan","family":"Begassyl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rano","family":"Sattarova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuandyk","family":"Shynybayev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0548-9207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raikhan","family":"Nissanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Indira","family":"Akzhunusova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8346-4147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nurkuisa","family":"Rametov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecton Analytics LLP, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7807-1444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhibek","family":"Zhetpisbay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0548-0835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han Sang","family":"Yoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nurlan","family":"Ahkmetsadykov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Kazakh National Agrarian Research University NJSC, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Scientific and Production Enterprise \u201cAntigen\u201d LLP, Almaty Region 040905, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kunsulu","family":"Zakarya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Holding \u201cQazbiopharm\u201d JSC, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markhabat","family":"Kassenov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1822-1437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhandos","family":"Abay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute LLP, Almaty 050016, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussen, J., Al-Jabr, O.A., Alkuwayti, M.A., Alrabiah, N.A., Falemban, B., Alouffi, A., Al Salim, W.S., Kamyingkird, K., and Desquesnes, M. (2024). A flow cytometry study of the binding and stimulation potential of inactivated Trypanosoma evansi toward dromedary camel leukocytes. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13010021"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Kharusi, A., Elshafie, E.I., Baqir, S., Faraz, A., Al-Ansari, A., Burger, P., Mahgoub, O., Al-Kharousi, K., Al-Duhli, H., and Al-Sinani, M. (2022). Detection of Trypanosoma infection in dromedary camels using different diagnostic techniques in northern Oman. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12111348"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2020.e00170","article-title":"Bovine and equine trypanosomosis in Northwest Ethiopia: Prevalence, density of vectors and control measures","volume":"11","author":"Dagnachew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2024.e00396","article-title":"Epidemiological investigation of trypanosomosis in livestock and distribution of vectors in Dabo Hana district, Southwest Oromia, Ethiopia","volume":"27","author":"Gebeyehu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brot\u00e1nkov\u00e1, A., Fialov\u00e1, M., \u010cepi\u010dka, I., Brzo\u0148ov\u00e1, J., and Svobodov\u00e1, M. (2022). Trypanosomes of the Trypanosoma theileri group: Phylogeny and new potential vectors. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10020294"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, Y., Suganuma, K., Ohari, Y., Kayano, M., Nakazaki, K., Fukumoto, S., Kawazu, S., and Inoue, N. (2023). Seasonal variation and factors affecting Trypanosoma theileri infection in wild sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in eastern Hokkaido. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13101707"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31510-6","article-title":"Human African trypanosomiasis","volume":"390","author":"Cecchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Desquesnes, M. (2004). Livestock Trypanosomoses and Their Vectors in Latin America, OIE."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luciani, M., Armillotta, G., Di Febo, T., Krasteva, I., Ulisse, S., Di Pancrazio, C., Laguardia, C., Perletta, F., Serroni, A., and Maggetti, M. (2024). Analysis of Trypanosoma equiperdum recombinant proteins for the serological diagnosis of dourine. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11030127"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2024). Dourine (Trypanosoma equiperdum infection). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, WOAH. [13th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"40","article-title":"Trypanosomiasis in equines: A brief discussion","volume":"4","author":"Halder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okello, I.S., Onyoyo, S.G., Kiteto, I.N., Korir, S.M., and Onyango, S.O. (2025). Identification of potential vectors and species density of tsetse fly, prevalence, and genetic diversity of drug-resistant trypanosomes in Kenya. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14121207"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2020.e00158","article-title":"Nationwide serological surveillance of non-tsetse-transmitted horse trypanosomoses in Mongolia","volume":"10","author":"Mizushima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Flores, A., El\u00edas-D\u00edaz, D., Cubillo-Cervantes, B., Ibarra-Cerde\u00f1a, C.N., Mor\u00e1n, D., Arnal, A., and Chaves, A. (2025). Fighting strategies against Chagas\u2019 disease: A review. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14020183"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Review on diagnostic methods of trypanosomosis","volume":"11","author":"Hailu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-0276130413","article-title":"Comparative serological techniques for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a rural population from Quer\u00e9taro, Mexico","volume":"109","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2009.04.011","article-title":"Antibody-ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi: Application in a serological survey of dairy cattle in Thailand and validation of a locally produced antigen","volume":"90","author":"Desquesnes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361037","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/361037","article-title":"Evaluation of an indirect-ELISA test for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in buffaloes and its application to a serological survey in Thailand","volume":"2015","author":"Kocher","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2022.e00280","article-title":"Seasonal prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and trypanosome species distribution in Jimma Horo district, Oromia Regional State, western Ethiopia","volume":"20","author":"Efrem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00e9bert, L., Froger, D., Madeline, A., Lecouturier, F., Lemans, C., and Zientara, S. (2023). European inter-laboratory proficiency test for dourine antibody detection using the complement fixation test. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10100592"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Chang, K.-T. (2008). Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"ESRI (2023, January 15). ArcGIS Pro: Version 3.4. Environmental Systems Research Institute. Available online: https:\/\/www.esri.com."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2025, May 02). Statistical Yearbook 2025, Available online: https:\/\/stat.gov.kz\/ru\/industries\/business-statistics\/stat-forrest-village-hunt-fish\/publications\/281285\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2005.05.001","article-title":"Comparison of serological tests for equine trypanosomosis in naturally infected horses from Kazakhstan","volume":"131","author":"Claes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"First draft genome sequence of the dourine causative agent: Trypanosoma equiperdum strain OVI","volume":"5","author":"Moumen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Genom."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182017001585","article-title":"Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand","volume":"145","author":"Camoin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3484-x","article-title":"Equine trypanosomosis: Enigmas and diagnostic challenges","volume":"12","author":"Gonzatti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2016.04.032","article-title":"In vitro production of Trypanosoma equiperdum antigen and its evaluation for use in serodiagnosis of dourine","volume":"223","author":"Bassarak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abay, Z., Kudaibergenova, Z., Bizhanov, A., Serikov, M., Berdiakhmetkyzy, S., Arysbekova, A., Aitlessova, R., Smadil, T., Kadyrov, S., and Lessov, B. (2025). Serological surveillance of Trypanosoma evansi in Kazakhstani camels by complement fixation and formalin gel tests. Front. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1661387"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/3\/303\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T09:20:31Z","timestamp":1773220831000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/3\/303"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15030303"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15030303","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]}}}