{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T22:45:53Z","timestamp":1791585953469,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774483200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an intracellular parasite known to modulate host immunity and cellular signaling, raising interest in its potential influence on cancer biology. A systematic review was conducted to evaluate experimental evidence on the antitumor or pro-tumor effects of T. gondii infection and parasite-derived antigens and to categorize the underlying mechanisms. PubMed was searched through 9 September 2024, and 54 eligible experimental studies were included (41 in vivo, 10 in vitro, and three combined). Forty-six studies reported antitumor effects, two pro-tumor effects, one stage-dependent divergent effects (acute infection\/antitumor vs. chronic infection\/pro-tumor), and five highlighted T. gondii-associated cancer-pertinent signaling pathways. Antitumor effects were observed following acute infection and exposure to parasite antigens, certain recombinant proteins, and exosomal microRNA miR-155-5p. Dominant mechanistic categories included activation of innate and adaptive immunity and reversal of tumor microenvironment immunosuppression (notably Th1-driven IL-12\/IFN-\u03b3 responses, antitumor M1 macrophage polarization), induction of apoptosis, anti-angiogenesis, molecular mimicry and modulation of cancer-pertinent pathways. Conversely, pro-tumor effects were seen with chronic infection and exposure to ROP18 effector protein and miR-21. Future translational research should focus on rigorous evaluation of the safety and efficacy of attenuated non-replicating T. gondii strains and\/or select recombinant antigens for potential cancer T. gondii-based immunotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15040351","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T13:36:40Z","timestamp":1774532200000},"page":"351","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Toxoplasma gondii and a Cancer Biology Dichotomy: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies of Its Antitumor and Pro-Tumor Effects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6740-0883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saachi","family":"Jhandi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brenda Anissa","family":"Vera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julian","family":"Galindo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dr. Jack S. Remington Laboratory for Specialty Diagnostics, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, Sutter Health, Palo Alto, CA 94301, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3378-8071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose G.","family":"Montoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dr. Jack S. Remington Laboratory for Specialty Diagnostics, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, Sutter Health, Palo Alto, CA 94301, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Despina G.","family":"Contopoulos-Ioannidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dr. Jack S. Remington Laboratory for Specialty Diagnostics, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, Sutter Health, Palo Alto, CA 94301, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/124.6.587","article-title":"Resistance to murine tumors conferred by chronic infection with intracellular protozoa, Toxoplasma gondii and Besnoitia jellisoni","volume":"124","author":"Hibbs","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/59.3.963","article-title":"Nonspecific inhibition of tumor growth in the central nervous system: Observations of intracerebral ependymoblastoma in mice with chronic Toxoplasma infection","volume":"59","author":"Conley","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Natl. 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