{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T10:19:43Z","timestamp":1785406783692,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002383","name":"King Saud University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ORF-2026-1111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ORF-2026-1111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002383","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["ORF-2026-1111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ORF-2026-1111"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02f81g417","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious transboundary viral disease affecting livestock, causing significant economic losses. This sero-epidemiological study investigated FMD distribution and associated risk factors in cattle and buffaloes along the Pakistan\u2013Afghanistan border. A total of 800 serum samples were collected from cattle (n = 610) and buffaloes (n = 190) and tested for antibodies against FMD viral structural proteins (SP) and non-structural proteins (NSP) using ELISA. Overall, 35.25% (282\/800) of samples were NSP-positive, indicating natural infection. Serotype-specific analysis showed serotype O as the most prevalent (66.1%), followed by serotype A (50%) and Asia-1 (32%). Cattle exhibited higher FMD prevalence (37%; 95% CI: 33\u201340) than buffaloes (30%; 95% CI: 23\u201337). Significant spatial variations in SP and NSP Seroprevalence were observed across different areas. Risk factor analysis identified male sex, young age (1\u20132 years), crossbred and exotic breeds, summer season, large herd size, smallholders subsistence production systems, poor body condition, and animal movement as factors associated with significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) FMD circulation. These findings indicate that FMD is highly endemic in the border region and highlight the critical need for government-led mass vaccination campaigns, targeted risk-based surveillance, and stringent movement control to mitigate disease spread. Implementation of such control strategies is essential to safeguard livestock health and protect the regional economy from substantial losses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15040407","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T15:26:39Z","timestamp":1775661999000},"page":"407","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Seroprevalence and Risk Factor Assessment of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus in the Pakistan\u2013Afghanistan Border Region"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Abdul","family":"Kabir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam 70060, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5176-6685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asghar Ali","family":"Kamboh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam 70060, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1975-7873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Abubakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Veterinary Laboratory (NVL), Ministry of National Food Security & Research, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kinkpe","family":"Lionel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Taicheng Road, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0343-5969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulkareem Mohammed","family":"Matar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Global prevalence of swine foot-and-mouth disease virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"45","author":"Peng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pak. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-024-09262-6","article-title":"Foot-and-mouth disease virus dynamics in border areas of Pakistan with Afghanistan","volume":"51","author":"Kabir","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-026-11520-8","article-title":"Molecular characterization and vaccine matching of foot-and-mouth disease virus in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan","volume":"53","author":"Sajid","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. 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