{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:23:49Z","timestamp":1783470229246,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a parasitic infection caused by trematodes of the Schistosoma genus and remains a significant health burden in endemic regions. Granulomatous host responses to deposited Schistosoma eggs in small veins and tissues result in progressive changes and characteristic imaging findings. This diagnostic radiological review synthesizes the published literature and highlights key and robust imaging findings that facilitate the diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium, with emphasis on modality-specific patterns and disease staging. Schistosoma mansoni primarily affects the liver, causing periportal fibrosis visible as \u201cpipe-stem\u201d echogenic thickening upon ultrasonography, which may progress to portal hypertension and chronic liver disease. Liver cirrhosis is the end-stage disease manifested as an irregular liver contour with surface nodularity and lobar redistribution as right lobe atrophy with left and\/or caudate lobe hypertrophy. Schistosoma haematobium predominantly affects the genitourinary system, causing urinary bladder wall thickening and calcification. Early disease, within three months of infection, may present with fine calcification, firstly in the bladder base and then extending to the whole bladder and even to the ureters. Calcification appears as a line or two parallel lines on radiography and as a circle in axial computed tomography (CT) images, which is pathognomonic for early-stage Schistosomiasis. In contrast studies, including conventional urography and CT urography, Schistosoma eggs appear as bubble-like filling defects in the ureter, kidney, and bladder, manifested as ureteritis, pyelitis, and cystitis cystica. Late stages appear as coarse calcification, fibrosis, strictures, and reduced bladder capacity and are associated with an increased risk of bladder squamous cell carcinoma. Moreover, Schistosomiasis calcification can present in genital organs, especially in the seminal vesicles; in the prostate in males; and in the vulva, cervix, and perineum in females. Ultimately, Schistosoma mansoni and haematobium eggs can reach the spinal cord, leading to acute myelopathy with paraparesis, urinary retention, or paraplegia. Recognition of characteristic imaging patterns of Schistosomiasis is essential for early diagnosis, accurate staging, and prevention of long-term complications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15050536","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T16:07:26Z","timestamp":1779206846000},"page":"536","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Schistosoma Mansoni and Haematobium: Radiological Diagnostic Clues and Pathophysiology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5049-6989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sultan Abdulwadoud","family":"Alshoabi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullatif O.","family":"Magram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced AlRazi Diagnostic Center, Al-Hodeidah, Yemen"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulaziz H.","family":"Alkalady","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced AlRazi Diagnostic Center, Al-Hodeidah, Yemen"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafat Rashed","family":"Al-Maqtari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced AlRazi Diagnostic Center, Al-Hodeidah, Yemen"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled M.","family":"Almas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Berlin Scan Center, Ibb, Yemen"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9508-3050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaled Mohammed","family":"Al-Sayaghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, College of Nursing, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6868-5294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullgabbar M.","family":"Hamid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiology Department, Rush University Medical Group, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fahad H.","family":"Alhazmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4816-4293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulaziz A.","family":"Qurashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Walaa","family":"Alsharif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8936-7479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amirah","family":"Alsaedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5806-3130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ezzat","family":"AbuAzzah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8475-7367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulkareem","family":"Algahtani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Radiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 42353, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled A.","family":"Alqfail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Najran University, Najran P.O. Box 1988, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0950-3945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalid M.","family":"Alshamrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Jeddah 22384, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Jeddah 22384, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Ministry of the National Guard\u2014Health Affairs, Jeddah 22384, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2024.101065","article-title":"Population-level impact of mass drug administration against schistosomiasis with anthelmintic drugs targeting juvenile schistosomes: A modelling study","volume":"6","author":"Singer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.3c00081","article-title":"Perspective on Schistosomiasis Drug Discovery: Highlights from a Schistosomiasis Drug Discovery Workshop at Wellcome Collection, London, September 2022","volume":"9","author":"Caldwell","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Infect. 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