{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:35:51Z","timestamp":1791894951012,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779235200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review provides a comprehensive overview of the genetic diversity and epidemiological potential of Yersinia pestis in Kazakhstan\u2019s natural plague foci, emphasizing the link between genotypic variation and outbreak capacity. Integrating historical epidemiological records with contemporary microbiological and genomic data (including PCR, VNTR\/MLVA, SNP analysis, and whole-genome sequencing), we evaluate core and accessory genome variations. The data reveal substantial regional heterogeneity. High-risk desert foci (Caspian and Aral regions) are dominated by the Medievalis biovar, including atypical genovariants lacking canonical markers. Conversely, high-mountain foci (Sarydzhaz, Talas) harbor the Antiqua and Talas biovars, primarily linked to enzootic circulation. Notably, the Ili River focus exhibits extreme genomic variability, featuring strains with plesiomorphic traits. Furthermore, the widespread distribution of mobile elements like the cryptic plasmid pCKF suggests significant horizontal transfer contributing to pathogen adaptation. Ultimately, Central Asian plague dynamics are driven by complex evolutionary and ecological interactions. Given climate change and expanding human\u2013wildlife interfaces, continuous genomic and ecological surveillance is essential for the early detection of high-risk Y. pestis genovariants and improving public health preparedness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15050551","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T09:12:41Z","timestamp":1779268361000},"page":"551","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["An Overview of the Genetic Diversity and Epidemiological Potential of Yersinia pestis Populations in Natural Plague Foci of Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7308-2113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aigul","family":"Abdirassilova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2202-9333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duman","family":"Yessimseit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 al-Farabi Ave., Almaty A15E3B4, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Altynai","family":"Kassenova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Altyn","family":"Rysbekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. 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Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elmira","family":"Begimbayeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7039-5621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ainur","family":"Nurpeisova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute, 223 Rayymbek Ave., Almaty A20C2E4, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1761-8189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Temirkhan","family":"Sagidulin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5724-8850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayaulym","family":"Maksatova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanzhar","family":"Agzam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M. Aikimbayev\u2019s National Scientific Center for Especially Dangerous Infections, 14 Zhakhanger St., Almaty A35P0K3, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0548-9207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raikhan","family":"Nissanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kazakh Scientific Research Veterinary Institute, 223 Rayymbek Ave., Almaty A20C2E4, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vladimir","family":"Motin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5459-2772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oleg","family":"Reva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harbeck, M., Seifert, L., H\u00e4nsch, S., Wagner, D.M., Birdsell, D., Parise, K.L., Wiechmann, I., Grupe, G., Thomas, A., and Keim, P. 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