{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:41:51Z","timestamp":1785415311733,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779408000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["AP23489672"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP23489672"]}]},{"award":["AP23489672"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP23489672"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05tyne317","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacterial sexually transmitted and sexually associated infections remain a major global health concern, increasingly complicated by antimicrobial resistance and the limited effectiveness of existing therapies. In this context, bacteriophage-based and phage-derived approaches have re-emerged as potential alternative antibacterial strategies. This narrative review examines their applicability across key bacterial pathogens associated with sexually transmitted infections, including Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium, Treponema pallidum and biofilm-associated bacterial vaginosis, with a particular focus on pathogen-specific biological barriers. Available evidence indicates that the success of phage-based interventions is strongly dependent on factors such as intracellular localisation, structural characteristics of the bacterial envelope and the presence of polymicrobial biofilms. While phage-derived platforms, including endolysins, depolymerases and engineered phages, demonstrate antibacterial activity in experimental settings, their effectiveness is uneven across different pathogens. Biofilm-associated infections appear more accessible to these approaches, whereas intracellular and structurally atypical bacteria are currently considered more challenging targets based on available mechanistic and experimental evidence. These observations highlight the need for pathogen-specific engineering strategies and delivery systems. Overall, phage-based therapeutics in this field should be considered within a framework that integrates biological constraints with targeted antimicrobial design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15060559","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T10:07:47Z","timestamp":1779444467000},"page":"559","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bacteriophage-Based Therapeutics for Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections: From Biological Barriers to Translational Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Nazym","family":"Syrym","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bolat","family":"Yespembetov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabit","family":"Kokanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6593-0271","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aziz","family":"Nakhanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yerbol","family":"Bulatov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Azamat","family":"Abdimukhtar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alinur","family":"Toleukhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeldos","family":"Serikbay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aibol","family":"Terebay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aktoty","family":"Anarbekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kali","family":"Tileukhanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabira","family":"Alpysbayeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Makhpal","family":"Sarmykova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bekzat","family":"Yerzhigit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadezhda","family":"Zinina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marat","family":"Suleimenov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and General Chemical Technology, S.D. Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty 050000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1998-8798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akbope","family":"Abdykalyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy 080409, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2026, March 15). Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.18.228486","article-title":"Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, trichomoniasis and syphilis: Global prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016","volume":"97","author":"Rowley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00010-14","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the 21st century: Past, evolution, and future","volume":"27","author":"Unemo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wi, T., Lahra, M.M., Ndowa, F., Bala, M., Dillon, J.R., Ramon-Pardo, P., Eremin, S.R., Bolan, G., and Unemo, M. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Global surveillance and a call for international collaborative action. PLoS Med., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002344"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, J.S., and Bradshaw, C. (2015). Management of Mycoplasma genitalium infections: Can we hit a moving target?. BMC Infect. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-1041-6"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.30","article-title":"Chlamydia cell biology and pathogenesis","volume":"14","author":"Elwell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7004a1","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021","volume":"70","author":"Workowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01095-09","article-title":"Global challenge of antibiotic-resistant Treponema pallidum","volume":"54","author":"Stamm","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2026, March 15). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/treatment-guidelines\/chlamydia.htm."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cater, K., Mi\u0119dzybrodzki, R., Morozova, V., Letkiewicz, S., \u0141usiak-Szelachowska, M., R\u0119kas, J., Weber-D\u0105browska, B., and G\u00f3rski, A. (2021). Potential for phages in the treatment of bacterial sexually transmitted infections. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10091030"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abedon, S.T., Garc\u00eda, P., Mullany, P., and Aminov, R. (2017). Phage therapy: Past, present and future. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00981"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.01.014","article-title":"Phage therapy: A renewed approach to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria","volume":"25","author":"Kortright","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.13.47","article-title":"Phage cocktails and the future of phage therapy","volume":"8","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zalewska-Pi\u0105tek, B. (2023). Phage therapy: Challenges, opportunities and future prospects. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16121638"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00107-24","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00107-24","article-title":"Biologic drug development for treatment and prevention of sexually transmitted infections","volume":"38","author":"Gill","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.4c00681","article-title":"Engineering Phages to Fight Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria","volume":"125","author":"Peng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). Global Health Sector Strategies on HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexually Transmitted Infections for the Period 2022\u20132030, WHO."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp030542","article-title":"Genital chlamydial infections","volume":"349","author":"Peipert","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1086\/428290","article-title":"Evaluation of antimicrobial resistance and treatment failures for Chlamydia trachomatis: A meeting report","volume":"191","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ljubin-Sternak, S., and Me\u0161trovi\u0107, T. (2025). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing in Chlamydia trachomatis: The current state of evidence and a call for more national surveillance studies. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15084322"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-025-04287-x","article-title":"Current progress and future perspective of Chlamydia trachomatis infection: A rising threat to women health","volume":"82","author":"Sharma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2022.0030","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance for Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection during pregnancy in Japan","volume":"54","author":"Suzuki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villa, L., Boga, J.A., Otero, L., Vazquez, F., Milagro, A., Salmer\u00f3n, P., Vall-Mayans, M., Maci\u00e1, M.D., Bernal, S., and Pi\u00f1eiro, L. (2023). Phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Chlamydia trachomatis isolates. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12060975"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Liu, Y., Yang, C., and Saka, H.A. (2024). Editorial: Chlamydia-host interaction and its pathogenic mechanism. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1372714"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2008.02647.x","article-title":"Genital Chlamydia trachomatis infections","volume":"15","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx454","article-title":"Phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Chlamydia trachomatis isolates","volume":"73","author":"Pitt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2026, March 15). Annual Epidemiological Report for 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/publications-data\/gonorrhoea-annual-epidemiological-report-2023."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2025.101181","article-title":"WHO global gonococcal antimicrobial surveillance programmes, 2019-2022: A retrospective observational study","volume":"6","author":"Unemo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EI10-0009-2015","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.EI10-0009-2015","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance expressed by Neisseria gonorrhoeae: A major global public health problem in the 21st century","volume":"4","author":"Unemo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1900147","article-title":"Detection in the United Kingdom of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae FC428 clone with ceftriaxone resistance","volume":"24","author":"Eyre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.4.965-981.2004","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection","volume":"17","author":"Edwards","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"769","article-title":"Bacteriophages in gonorrhea control","volume":"50","author":"Golec","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00006-11","article-title":"Mycoplasma genitalium: From chrysalis to multicolored butterfly","volume":"24","author":"Jensen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.13849","article-title":"2016 European guideline on Mycoplasma genitalium infections","volume":"30","author":"Jensen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2023.02.009","article-title":"Update in epidemiology and management of Mycoplasma genitalium infections","volume":"37","author":"Wood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053384","article-title":"Prevalence of Mycoplasma genitalium in different population groups: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Baumann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30154-7","article-title":"Prevalence of resistance-associated mutations in Mycoplasma genitalium: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Machalek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-024-01023-3","article-title":"Antimicrobial treatment and resistance in sexually transmitted bacterial infections","volume":"22","author":"Jensen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2024.101047","article-title":"Evolving patterns of antimicrobial resistance in Mycoplasma genitalium","volume":"6","author":"Chua","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philipova, I., Mademova, M., Birindjieva, E., Milanova, V., and Levterova, V. (2024). Implementation of Mycoplasma genitalium diagnostics with resistance detection. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202410.2293.v1"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2305.161745","article-title":"Increasing macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma genitalium","volume":"23","author":"Murray","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1177\/0956462419890737","article-title":"Mycoplasma genitalium and antimicrobial resistance in Europe: A comprehensive review","volume":"31","author":"Esperalba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp048126","article-title":"Syphilis control: A continuing challenge","volume":"351","author":"Hook","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17073","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.73","article-title":"Syphilis","volume":"3","author":"Peeling","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2026, March 15). Syphilis. Annual Epidemiological Report for 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/publications-data\/syphilis-annual-epidemiological-report-2023."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2026, March 15). Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2023, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/sti-statistics\/annual\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00070-13","article-title":"The endemic treponematoses","volume":"27","author":"Giacani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040216","article-title":"Macrolide resistance in Treponema pallidum in the United States and Ireland","volume":"351","author":"Lukehart","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e770","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00154-4","article-title":"Genomic epidemiology of syphilis in England: A population-based study","volume":"4","author":"Beale","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16245","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.245","article-title":"Origin of modern syphilis and emergence of a pandemic Treponema pallidum cluster","volume":"2","author":"Arora","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000972","article-title":"High global burden and costs of bacterial vaginosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Peebles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Lu, Y., Chen, T., and Li, R. (2021). The female vaginal microbiome in health and bacterial vaginosis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.631972"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2013.05.006","article-title":"The global epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis: A systematic review","volume":"209","author":"Kenyon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000183594.45524.d2","article-title":"Adherent biofilms in bacterial vaginosis","volume":"106","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e32835c20cd","article-title":"The biofilm in bacterial vaginosis: Implications for epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment","volume":"26","author":"Verstraelen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043802","article-title":"Molecular identification of bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis","volume":"353","author":"Fredricks","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3896","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01965-07","article-title":"Functional and phylogenetic characterization of vaginolysin from Gardnerella vaginalis","volume":"190","author":"Gelber","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2010.12.061","article-title":"Gardnerella vaginalis comprises distinct genotypes with differential sialidase production","volume":"204","author":"Santiago","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morrill, S., Saha, S., Varki, A.P., Lewis, W.G., Ram, S., and Lewis, A.L. (2023). Gardnerella vaginolysin potentiates glycan molecular mimicry by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiad391"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12067","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.453654","article-title":"Degradation and utilization of mucus sialoglycans by Gardnerella vaginalis","volume":"288","author":"Lewis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2202762","article-title":"Syphilis complicating pregnancy and congenital syphilis","volume":"390","author":"Stafford","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S14","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw159","article-title":"Current treatment of bacterial vaginosis: Limitations and need for innovation","volume":"214","author":"Bradshaw","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv338","article-title":"Influence of biofilm formation by Gardnerella vaginalis","volume":"212","author":"Machado","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.51.1.349","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis","volume":"51","author":"Sobel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S383333","article-title":"Recurrent bacterial vaginosis: Clinical considerations","volume":"15","author":"Muzny","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw121","article-title":"Pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis: Discussion of current hypotheses","volume":"214","author":"Muzny","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-022-00285-0","article-title":"Endolysins targeting Gardnerella vaginalis biofilms","volume":"8","author":"Cummings","year":"2022","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2007.06.039","article-title":"Persistent Gardnerella vaginalis biofilm following standard therapy","volume":"198","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2015-052475","article-title":"A fruitful alliance: The synergy between Atopobium vaginae and Gardnerella vaginalis in bacterial vaginosis-associated biofilm","volume":"92","author":"Hardy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00066-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00066-18","article-title":"Phage therapy in the postantibiotic era","volume":"32","author":"Barr","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischetti, V.A. (2018). Development of phage lysins as novel therapeutics. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10060310"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00069-15","article-title":"Genetically engineered phages: A review of advances over the last decade","volume":"80","author":"Pires","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.12.97","article-title":"Bacteriophage endolysins as novel antimicrobials","volume":"7","author":"Schmelcher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Topka-Bielecka, G., Dydecka, A., Necel, A., Bloch, S., Nejman-Fale\u0144czyk, B., W\u0119grzyn, G., and W\u0119grzyn, A. (2021). Bacteriophage-derived depolymerases against bacterial biofilm. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10020175"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1126\/science.4001944","article-title":"Filamentous fusion phage: Novel expression vectors that display cloned antigens on the virion surface","volume":"228","author":"Smith","year":"1985","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3043","article-title":"Exploiting CRISPR-Cas nucleases for antimicrobials","volume":"32","author":"Bikard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1006\/jtbi.2000.2198","article-title":"Understanding bacteriophage therapy kinetics","volume":"208","author":"Payne","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2020.1729695","article-title":"Phage therapy efficacy: A review of the last 10 years of preclinical studies","volume":"46","author":"Melo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2012.09.015","article-title":"What is needed for phage therapy to become a reality in Western medicine?","volume":"434","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.01.009","article-title":"(Ph)ighting phages: How bacteria resist their parasites","volume":"25","author":"Marraffini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-014-1617-7","article-title":"Quality and safety requirements for sustainable phage therapy products","volume":"32","author":"Pirnay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.3390\/ph8030559","article-title":"Ecology of anti-biofilm agents II: Bacteriophage exploitation and biocontrol of biofilm bacteria","volume":"8","author":"Abedon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics3030270","article-title":"Bacteriophages and biofilms","volume":"3","author":"Harper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.2174\/138920108785161604","article-title":"The use of phages for the removal of infectious biofilms","volume":"9","author":"Azeredo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2315","article-title":"Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms","volume":"8","author":"Labrie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1894-8","article-title":"The arms race between bacteria and their phage foes","volume":"577","author":"Hampton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14802","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14802","article-title":"Mammalian host-versus-phage immune response determines phage fate in vivo","volume":"5","author":"Miernikiewicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2017.06.018","article-title":"Synergy between the host immune system and bacteriophage is essential for successful phage therapy against an acute respiratory pathogen","volume":"22","author":"Roach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00954-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00954-17","article-title":"Development and use of personalized bacteriophage-based therapeutic cocktails to treat a patient with a disseminated resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infection","volume":"61","author":"Schooley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkw083","article-title":"Bacteriophage therapy: A regulatory perspective","volume":"71","author":"Pelfrene","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30482-1","article-title":"Efficacy and tolerability of a cocktail of bacteriophages to treat burn wounds infected by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PhagoBurn): A randomised, controlled, double-blind phase 1\/2 trial","volume":"19","author":"Jault","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8919","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2059442","article-title":"Bacteriophage and endolysin engineering for biocontrol of food pathogens: Recent advances and future trends","volume":"63","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.4161\/bbug.1.1.9818","article-title":"Recombinant bacteriophage lysins as antibacterials","volume":"1","author":"Fenton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioeng. Bugs"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2017.12.009","article-title":"Synthetic biology of modular endolysins","volume":"36","author":"Gerstmans","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Love, M.J., Bhandari, D., Dobson, R.C.J., and Billington, C. (2018). Potential for bacteriophage endolysins to supplement or replace antibiotics in food production and clinical care. Antibiotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7010017"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00890-10","article-title":"A novel chimeric lysin shows superiority to mupirocin for skin decolonization of methicillin-resistant and -sensitive Staphylococcus aureus strains","volume":"55","author":"Pastagia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4558","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03277-12","article-title":"Molecular aspects and comparative genomics of bacteriophage endolysins","volume":"87","author":"Oliveira","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01379-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01379-14","article-title":"Engineered endolysin-based Artilysins to combat multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens","volume":"5","author":"Briers","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2017.08.027","article-title":"Inhibitory and bactericidal effect of Artilysin Art-175 against colistin-resistant mcr-1-positive Escherichia coli isolates","volume":"51","author":"Schirmeier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02972-15","article-title":"Novel engineered peptides of a phage lysin as effective antimicrobials against multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii","volume":"60","author":"Thandar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landlinger, C., Tisakova, L., Oberbauer, V., Schwebs, T., Muhammad, A., Latka, A., Van Simaey, L., Vaneechoutte, M., Guschin, A., and Resch, G. (2021). Engineered phage endolysin eliminates Gardnerella biofilm. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10010054"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3103","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-017-8224-6","article-title":"Bacteriophage-encoded virion-associated enzymes to overcome carbohydrate barriers during infection","volume":"101","author":"Latka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3039","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-144-11-3039","article-title":"Biofilm susceptibility to bacteriophage attack: The role of phage-borne polysaccharide depolymerase","volume":"144","author":"Hughes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4056","DOI":"10.1021\/cr000261r","article-title":"Filamentous phage display in the new millennium","volume":"105","author":"Kehoe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henry, K.A., Arbabi-Ghahroudi, M., and Scott, J.K. (2015). Beyond phage display: Non-traditional applications of filamentous bacteriophage. Front. Microbiol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00755"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4569","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00567-12","article-title":"Development of anti-infectives using phage display","volume":"56","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6412-3_6","article-title":"Phage display for high-specificity affinity reagents","volume":"1485","author":"Finlay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-009-0192-2","article-title":"Progress in phage display and its applications","volume":"67","author":"Bratkovic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-016-0223-x","article-title":"Advancement and applications of peptide phage display","volume":"23","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baarda, B.I., Zielke, R.A., Jerse, A.E., and Sikora, A.E. (2018). Lipid-modified azurin of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02915"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2008.11.002","article-title":"Mucus-penetrating nanoparticles for drug delivery","volume":"61","author":"Lai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc6245","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abc6245","article-title":"Enhanced drug delivery to the reproductive tract","volume":"13","author":"Zierden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3011","article-title":"Sequence-specific antimicrobials using RNA-guided nucleases","volume":"32","author":"Citorik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7267","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1500107112","article-title":"Programmable bacteriophages targeting resistant bacteria","volume":"112","author":"Yosef","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3659","article-title":"Applications of CRISPR technologies","volume":"34","author":"Barrangou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2934","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16731-6","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas13a-based antimicrobials","volume":"11","author":"Kiga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.2c00649","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas-based antimicrobials: Design and challenges","volume":"9","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-023-01759-y","article-title":"Engineered phage with antibacterial CRISPR-Cas","volume":"42","author":"Gencay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.05.010","article-title":"Development and applications of CRISPR-Cas9","volume":"157","author":"Hsu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pursey, E., S\u00fcnderhauf, D., Gaze, W.H., Westra, E.R., and van Houte, S. (2018). CRISPR-Cas antimicrobials: Challenges and future prospects. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006990"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30727-1","article-title":"Macrolide consumption and resistance in Mycoplasma genitalium","volume":"20","author":"Kenyon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100871","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(24)00087-9","article-title":"Clinical and genomic diversity of Treponema pallidum to inform vaccine research: An international molecular epidemiology study","volume":"5","author":"Matoga","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romeis, E., Tantalo, L., Lieberman, N., Phung, Q., Greninger, A., and Giacani, L. (2021). Genetic engineering of Treponema pallidum. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009612"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01153-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01153-18","article-title":"Long-term in vitro culture of Treponema pallidum","volume":"9","author":"Edmondson","year":"2018","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro, J., Sousa, L.G.V., Fran\u00e7a, \u00c2., Podpera Tisakova, L., Corsini, L., and Cerca, N. (2022). Anti-biofilm effect of engineered endolysin PM-477. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11050558"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hanlon, D.E., Moench, T.R., and Cone, R.A. (2013). Vaginal pH and lactic acid. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080074"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4680","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002611107","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women","volume":"108","author":"Ravel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283021a37","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis and HIV acquisition: A meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Atashili","year":"2008","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz342","article-title":"Updated model of bacterial vaginosis pathogenesis","volume":"220","author":"Muzny","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02707-13","article-title":"Neisseria gonorrhoeae filamentous phage Ngo\u03a66","volume":"88","author":"Piekarowicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.04.033","article-title":"Nanoparticle-based drug delivery to the vagina: A review","volume":"190","author":"Ensign","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"1","article-title":"Gels as vaginal drug delivery systems","volume":"318","author":"Bahia","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2015.02.001","article-title":"Mucoadhesive and thermogelling systems for vaginal drug delivery","volume":"92","author":"Caramella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leyva-G\u00f3mez, G., Pi\u00f1\u00f3n-Segundo, E., Mendoza-Mu\u00f1oz, N., Zambrano-Zaragoza, M.L., Mendoza-Elvira, S., and Quintanar-Guerrero, D. (2018). Approaches in polymeric nanoparticles for vaginal drug delivery: A review of the state of the art. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19061549"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2011.12.009","article-title":"Oral drug delivery with polymeric nanoparticles: The gastrointestinal mucus barriers","volume":"64","author":"Ensign","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauconnier, A. (2019). Phage therapy regulation: From night to dawn. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11040352"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1038\/embor.2013.163","article-title":"Paving a regulatory pathway for phage therapy. Europe should muster the resources to financially, technically and legally support the introduction of phage therapy","volume":"14","author":"Huys","year":"2013","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0437-z","article-title":"Engineered bacteriophages for treatment of a patient with a disseminated drug-resistant Mycobacterium abscessus","volume":"25","author":"Dedrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e208","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00612-5","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of phage therapy in difficult-to-treat infections: A systematic review","volume":"22","author":"Uyttebroek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manrique, P., Dills, M., and Young, M.J. (2017). The human gut phage community and its implications for health and disease. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9060141"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramanian, A. (2024). Emerging roles of bacteriophage-based therapeutics in combating antibiotic resistance. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1384164"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.05.001","article-title":"Dynamic modulation of the gut microbiota and metabolome by bacteriophages in a mouse model","volume":"25","author":"Hsu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/6\/559\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T10:24:43Z","timestamp":1779445483000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/6\/559"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15060559"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15060559","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]}}}