{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T11:14:23Z","timestamp":1780917263800,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Acanthamoeba is a free-living protozoan widely distributed in the environment and causes Acanthamoeba keratitis, skin, and brain disease. Acanthamoeba can exchange genes, potentially increasing antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to summarize published studies on horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between Acanthamoeba and its intracellular microorganisms and to evaluate the impact of HGTs on the pathogenicity of Acanthamoeba. Methods: This systematic review was conducted following the recommended reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement guideline. The electronic databases PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were used to search for relevant published research articles. Results: Nineteen studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria were included in this systematic review. A total of 14 (73.6%) studies reported evidence of HGT involving Acanthamoeba, and five studies of the nineteen (26.3%) analysed the presence of intracellular microorganisms on the pathological effects of the host Acanthamoeba. Horizontally transferred genes were predominantly reported from Pseudomonas species, Legionella pneumophila, and Chlamydia species. Conclusions: HGT can occur among intracellular microorganisms and their host Acanthamoeba. Acanthamoeba harbouring intracellular microbes showed enhanced pathogenic effects on human corneal epithelial cells and in a mouse model. However, heterogeneity among the included studies precluded meta-analysis. Studies using clinical and environmental samples are needed to characterize the horizontal transfer of virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15060610","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T10:04:14Z","timestamp":1780913054000},"page":"610","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Implication of Horizontal Gene Transfer Between Acanthamoeba and Its Intracellular Microbes on Pathogenicity: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5306-6175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yalewayker","family":"Asrat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5703-0265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Biruk","family":"Bayleyegn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3842-7563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark","family":"Willcox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Carnt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3007-8901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Binod","family":"Rayamajhee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Infection and Immunology, Kathmandu Research Institute for Biological Sciences (KRIBS), Kathmandu 44700, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Jiang, L., Zhao, Y., Ju, X., Wang, L., Jin, L., Fine, R.D., and Li, M. 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