{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:04:55Z","timestamp":1785416695357,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784851200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100022271","name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["RA Plus 67\/13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RA Plus 67\/13"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100022271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["RA Plus 67\/13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RA Plus 67\/13"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05gzceg21","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005621","name":"Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["KU.FF70"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KU.FF70"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005621","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["KU.FF70"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KU.FF70"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01r8yv121","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trypanosomosis (Surra), caused by the hemoflagellate protozoan Trypanosoma evansi, has a negative impact on animal health and the livestock economy in many countries, including Thailand. Molecular epidemiological data and integrative control approaches for small-scale farms remain limited. This study determined the prevalence of Trypanozoon infection and its associated risk factors in Thai livestock under an integrative control approach. Molecular tools were used to characterize T. evansi typing. A total of 947 blood samples were collected from cattle and buffalo across 123 small-scale farms in 16 provinces covering four regions of Thailand, with diagnostic results and control recommendations communicated to farmers within 14 days. The ITS2-positive samples were then subjected to further molecular characterization, together with two dogs, seven horses, and an in vitro T. evansi isolate, comprising 40 Trypanozoon-positive samples. These were characterized using PCR targeting the TBR primer, maxicircle NADH5, VSG RoTat 1.2, and minicircle B, followed by ITS2-based phylogenetic analysis. Risk factors were assessed using Chi-square and Fisher\u2019s exact tests, logistic regression, a generalized linear mixed model, and Firth\u2019s penalized logistic regression. The overall prevalence of Trypanozoon infection was 3.17% (30\/947), detected exclusively in beef cattle in the Northern region (15.30%; 30\/196), specifically in Lampang (46.15%, 12\/26), Tak (23.08%, 3\/13), and Phrae (17.24%, 15\/87) Provinces. No infections were reported in the Northeastern, Central, or Southern regions. Male sex, age under one year, and residence in the Northern region were significant individual-level risk factors, while farm-level lacrimation and the presence of Stomoxys were significantly associated with infection. Molecular characterization identified T. evansi type A and type non-A\/B, with no type B or maxicircle-positive samples detected. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the Thai isolates with previously reported isolates from Thai deer and cattle, Iranian camels, and Colombian dogs. On follow-up, no Trypanozoon infection was detected in revisited farms. These findings confirmed that T. evansi, comprising types A and non-A\/B, continues to circulate in Thai livestock, particularly in beef cattle in Northern Thailand. Data from this study can be used for surveillance and future development of more effective diagnostic systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15080790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T16:11:56Z","timestamp":1785168716000},"page":"790","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Molecular Characterization and Prevalence of Trypanozoon Infection in Livestock on Small-Scale Farms in Thailand: An Integrative Control Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7386-2986","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Apiraya","family":"Rudeekiatthamrong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pairpailin","family":"Jhaiaun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giang Thi","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wissanuwat","family":"Chimnoi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9542-3972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darunwan","family":"Chuensaengarun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chattraporn","family":"Rungchalermlak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanapat","family":"Mutchimadilok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nipa","family":"Thammasonthijarern","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3148-176X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thawijit","family":"Phannithi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kasetsart University Animal Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Nakorn Pathom 73140, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9468-6733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tawanhathai","family":"Apichaimongkonkun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kasetsart University Animal Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Nakorn Pathom 73140, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laphatsararach","family":"Apinantanakorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kasetsart University Animal Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Nakorn Pathom 73140, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanittha","family":"Phetudomsinsuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal and Wildlife Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Nakorn Pathom 73140, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5982-4811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tawin","family":"Inpankaew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4167-1553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Burin","family":"Nimsuphan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0000-6018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruttayaporn","family":"Ngasaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nuttapon","family":"Manojai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mae Moh District Livestock Office, Mae Moh District, Lampang 52220, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2711-6188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jumnongjit","family":"Phasuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3551-359X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ketsarin","family":"Kamyingkird","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Lad Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321237","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/321237","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi and surra: A review and perspectives on transmission, epidemiology and control, impact, and zoonotic aspects","volume":"2013","author":"Desquesnes","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194176","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/194176","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi and surra: A review and perspectives on origin, history, distribution, taxonomy, morphology, hosts, and pathogenic effects","volume":"2013","author":"Desquesnes","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., Alvarez\u2013Rodriguez, A., Li, Z., Radwanska, M., and Magez, S. (2023). Recent progress in the detection of surra, a neglected disease caused by Trypanosoma evansi with a one health impact in large parts of the tropics and sub-tropic world. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12010044"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200407","DOI":"10.1098\/rsob.200407","article-title":"Euglenozoa: Taxonomy, diversity and ecology, symbioses and viruses","volume":"11","author":"Kostygov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0711799105","article-title":"Adaptations of Trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast DNA: Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi are petite mutants of T. brucei","volume":"105","author":"Lai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(02)00020-6","article-title":"Natural and induced dyskinetoplastic trypanosomatids: How to live without mitochondrial DNA","volume":"32","author":"Schnaufer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2021.12.010","article-title":"\u00a0Trypanosoma evansi","volume":"38","author":"Sazmand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Whitehouse, C. (2022). Trypanosoma evansi, CABI. Available online: https:\/\/www.cabidigitallibrary.org\/doi\/10.1079\/cabicompendium.60783."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.491","article-title":"Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India: The first case report","volume":"73","author":"Joshi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw052","article-title":"A clinical and epidemiological investigation of the first reported human infection with the zoonotic parasite Trypanosoma evansi in Southeast Asia","volume":"62","author":"Desquesnes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"WOAH (2024). Surra in All Species (Trypanosoma evansi Infection), World Organisation for Animal Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.woah.org\/en\/what-we-do\/standards\/codes-and-manuals\/#chapter\/?rid=317&volume_no=3&ismanual=true&language=102&standard_type=6&animal_type=7."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(92)90047-O","article-title":"Sensitive detection of trypanosomes in tsetse flies by DNA amplification","volume":"22","author":"Masiga","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.2001.4670","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi: Cloning and expression in Spodoptera frugiperda insect cells of the diagnostic antigen RoTat1.2","volume":"99","author":"Urakawa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2005.08.002","article-title":"Characterization of Trypanosoma evansi type B","volume":"6","author":"Njiru","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001324","DOI":"10.1590\/s1984-29612024033","article-title":"Molecular identification of new Trypanosoma evansi type non-A\/B isolates from buffaloes and cattle in Indonesia","volume":"33","author":"Subekti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2008.06.007","article-title":"What happens when Trypanosoma brucei leaves Africa","volume":"24","author":"Jensen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-013-3297-3","article-title":"Isolation, cloning, and pathologic analysis of Trypanosoma evansi field isolates","volume":"112","author":"Mekata","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"219","article-title":"Genome-wide analysis for variants in Philippine Trypanosoma evansi isolates with varying drug resistance profiles","volume":"148","author":"Lazaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philipp. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-4758(88)90188-3","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi in Asia","volume":"4","author":"Luckins","year":"1988","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(99)00056-2","article-title":"Influence of Trypanosoma evansi infection on milk yield of dairy cattle in northeast Thailand","volume":"42","author":"Pholpark","year":"1999","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"69","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with infected Trypanosoma evansi in buffaloes of Eastern Thailand","volume":"14","author":"Panja","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mahanakorn Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1077","article-title":"PCR prevalence of Trypanosoma spp. in captive ruminants at Doi Luang and Mae Chan district, Chiang Rai","volume":"47","author":"Simking","year":"2019","journal-title":"Khon Kaen Agric. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1674","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.1674-1678","article-title":"Investigation of Trypanosoma evansi infection in bullfighting cattle in Southern Thailand","volume":"13","author":"Kamyingkird","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. World."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"809","article-title":"Prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infections in buffaloes, beef and dairy cattle in Sakon Nakhon province using molecular and serological assays","volume":"57","author":"Suwan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agric. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2025.500-507","article-title":"Prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infection in Thai and imported beef cattle on the Thai-Myanmar border using parasitological and molecular methods","volume":"18","author":"Kengradomkij","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naing, L., Nordin, R.B., Abdul Rahman, H., and Naing, Y.T. (2022). Sample size calculation for prevalence studies using Scalex and ScalaR calculators. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-022-01694-7"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2022.108289","article-title":"Isolation and in vitro cultivation of Trypanosoma evansi Thai strains","volume":"239","author":"Kamyingkird","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2025.110483","article-title":"Serological detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle using an in vitro cultivated antigen for indirect ELISA in Thailand","volume":"337","author":"Jhaiaun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2016.03.022","article-title":"Further evidence from SSCP and ITS DNA sequencing supports Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum as subspecies or even strains of Trypanosoma brucei","volume":"41","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcp.2006.03.009","article-title":"PCR approach for the detection of Trypanosoma brucei and T. equiperdum and their differentiation from T. evansi based on maxicircle kinetoplast DNA","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Probes"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2024.e00403","article-title":"Application of molecular approach in combination with providing treatment and control measures for combating Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina infections in small scale livestock farms in Thailand","volume":"28","author":"Klinkaew","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182025000277","article-title":"Application of molecular detection, phylogenetic analysis, and risk factor evaluation for combating Anaplasma infection in small-scale livestock farms in Thailand","volume":"152","author":"Chimnoi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3022","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msab120","article-title":"MEGA11: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 11","volume":"38","author":"Tamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70130","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.70130","article-title":"Bovine trypanosomosis: Seasonal prevalence and vector density in Dara District, Sidama region, Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Jiso","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182017001585","article-title":"Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand","volume":"145","author":"Camoin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"19","article-title":"Comparing genetic characteristics of Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of Trypanosoma evansi infecting rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Thailand","volume":"13","author":"Saiyasombat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thai-NIAH eJ"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2025.1333-1344","article-title":"Prevalence of trypanosomiasis in domesticated animals in Indonesia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Firdausy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2024.756-762","article-title":"Molecular prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Trypanosoma evansi in recently calved female cattle from Phayao, Thailand","volume":"17","author":"Klinbumrung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.56808\/2985-1130.2980","article-title":"Molecular detection of Trypanosoma evansi in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in southwestern Saudi Arabia","volume":"49","author":"Alarabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thai J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"31","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi: Prevalence in naturally infected cattle in Borno and Gombe state, Nigeria","volume":"6","author":"Bello","year":"2023","journal-title":"Savannah Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.5897\/AJAR2015.10458","article-title":"A study on prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in selected areas of Konta Special Woreda, Southern Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Ataro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, S., Sharma, A., Joy, A., Dunshea, F.R., and Chauhan, S.S. (2022). The impact of heat stress on immune status of dairy cattle and strategies to ameliorate the negative effects. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13010107"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-05054-0","article-title":"Molecular identification and prevalence of trypanosomes in cattle distributed within the Jebba axis of the River Niger, Kwara state, Nigeria","volume":"14","author":"Habeeb","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"32","article-title":"Trypanosoma evansi infection in Northeastern Thailand","volume":"8","author":"Pholphak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Thai-NIAH eJ"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aspen.2017.11.013","article-title":"Species diversity and abundance of Tabanus spp. (Diptera: Tabanidae) in different habitats of Thailand","volume":"21","author":"Changbunjong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Asia Pac. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"175","article-title":"Seasonal abundance of Tabanidae (Diptera) on dairy farms in Saraburi province, Thailand","volume":"44","author":"Phasuk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Thai J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v87i1.1891","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors for Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in Southeastern Algeria","volume":"87","author":"Benaissa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4017(93)90190-X","article-title":"The effect of Trypanosoma evansi infection on the oestrous cycle of Friesian Holstein heifers","volume":"51","author":"Payne","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"155","article-title":"Corneal opacity due to trypanosomosis in buffaloes-need of topical medication","volume":"1","author":"Reddy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1177\/030098587200900407","article-title":"Pathological changes in cattle infected with Trypanosoma brucei","volume":"9","author":"Ikede","year":"1972","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2019.11.001","article-title":"Biology and epidemiology of gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle","volume":"36","author":"Charlier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4125","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.09.14","article-title":"Using the confidence interval confidently","volume":"9","author":"Hazra","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-024-00359-9","article-title":"Relationship between animal-based on-farm indicators and meat inspection data in pigs","volume":"10","author":"Witt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.04.001","article-title":"A comparison of six primer sets for detection of Trypanosoma evansi by polymerase chain reaction in rodents and Thai livestock","volume":"171","author":"Pruvot","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van, R.N., Patient Pyana, P., Dehou, S., Bebronne, N., Deborggraeve, S., and Buscher, P. (2021). Single nucleotide polymorphisms and copy-number variations in the Trypanosoma brucei repeat (TBR) sequence can be used to enhance amplification and genotyping of Trypanozoon strains. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0258711"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1021","article-title":"Prevalence and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi infection causing abortion among cattles and buffaloes in Eastern border area of Thailand-Cambodia","volume":"15","author":"Srikijkasemwat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1002\/mgg3.295","article-title":"Pitfalls in genetic testing: A case of a SNP in primer-annealing region leading to allele dropout in BRCA1","volume":"5","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Genom. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-018-0931-z","article-title":"Inhibition mechanisms of hemoglobin, immunoglobulin G, and whole blood in digital and real-time PCR","volume":"410","author":"Sidstedt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3143","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01177-11","article-title":"Identification of Leishmania spp. by molecular amplification and DNA sequencing analysis of a fragment of rRNA internal transcribed spacer 2","volume":"49","author":"Steurer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evx102","article-title":"Genome-wide SNP analysis reveals distinct origins of Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum","volume":"9","author":"Cuypers","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genome Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3311-4","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis on the global distribution, host range, and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi","volume":"12","author":"Aregawi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birhanu, H., Gebrehiwot, T., Goddeeris, B.M., B\u00fcscher, P., and Van Reet, N. (2016). New Trypanosoma evansi type B isolates from Ethiopian dromedary camels. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004556"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2005.01.001","article-title":"The detection of non-RoTat 1.2 Trypanosoma evansi","volume":"110","author":"Ngaira","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.69.487","article-title":"Genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi in buffalo based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions","volume":"69","author":"Khuchareontaworn","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2021.113-119","article-title":"Genetic and parasitological identification of Trypanosoma evansi infecting cattle in South Sulawesi, Indonesia","volume":"14","author":"Setiawan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2025.2475990","article-title":"Understanding zoonotic pathogens and risk factors from wildlife in Southeast Asia: A systematic literature review","volume":"45","author":"Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Q."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/8\/790\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T04:16:36Z","timestamp":1785212196000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/8\/790"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15080790"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15080790","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]}}}