{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T12:58:11Z","timestamp":1785329891105,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":314,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oncogenic viruses contribute to approximately 20% of human cancers globally, with their impact falling disproportionately on populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. In this region, cervical cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, endemic Burkitt lymphoma, and Kaposi sarcoma represent major causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality, driven by persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV\/HCV), Epstein\u2013Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-lymphotropic virus-1 (HTLV-1). This review synthesizes current insights into the immunological mechanisms that underpin viral carcinogenesis in Africa, emphasizing how defective viral clearance, chronic immune activation, and immune evasion arise from the convergence of region-specific co-infections, host genetic diversity, and environmental exposures. We examine the mechanistic roles of HIV-associated CD4+ T cell depletion, malaria-induced perturbation of antiviral T cell immunity, helminth-driven T helper 2 polarization, and tuberculosis-associated inflammatory signaling in promoting viral persistence and malignant transformation. In addition, the influence of the extensive diversity of African human leukocyte antigens (HLA) and cytokine gene polymorphisms on antiviral immune responses and cancer susceptibility was discussed. We also assessed how virus-associated tumors establish profoundly immunosuppressive microenvironments characterized by impaired antigen presentation and the dominance of immune checkpoint pathways. Finally, we examined how gaps in vaccination, screening, and diagnostic capacity intersect with immunological vulnerability across Africa, contributing to the burden of infection-associated cancers. These challenges position Africa as a critical setting for developing targeted, genotype-inclusive public health interventions and reducing global cancer disparities through advances in immunoprevention and immunotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15080800","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T15:57:28Z","timestamp":1785254248000},"page":"800","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Immunological Determinants of Oncogenic Virus-Driven Cancers in Africa: Mechanisms, Co-Infections and Public Health Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2610-4600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor Ayodele","family":"Aliyu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6337-3638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olalekan Chris","family":"Akinsulie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1406-8359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babatunde Ibrahim","family":"Olowu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2435-9870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Idris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0461-8229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Favour Akinfemi","family":"Ajibade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The Robert Larner, M.D. College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6856-5108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pius I.","family":"Babawale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Barton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4207-7423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oluwawemimo","family":"Adebowale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta 110124, Ogun State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6559-7176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles Egede","family":"Ugwu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1616-7848","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chizaram Blessing","family":"Ukauwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Health and Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Abuja, FCT, Abuja 900102, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Onyedikachi Emmanuel","family":"Itumo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Middlesex University London, London NW4 4BT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2765-4801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter Arinze","family":"Oge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy, University of Cross Rivers State, Yala 550107, Cross Rivers State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sammuel","family":"Shahzad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chizobam Lilian","family":"Chukwu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Imo State University, Owerri 460222, Imo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toyin Florence","family":"Ayandokun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joy Taiye","family":"Aliyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peace Kehinde","family":"Aliyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesuferanmi Mary","family":"Akinsulie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences and Society, University of Suffolk, Ipswich IP3 0AQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Ipoola","family":"Adeyemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0686-1544","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olamilekan Gabriel","family":"Banwo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200132, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e180","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30488-7","article-title":"Global burden of cancer attributable to infections in 2018: A worldwide incidence analysis","volume":"8","author":"Georges","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. 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