{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T09:25:20Z","timestamp":1787736320592,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Genital tract infections and dysbiosis-related conditions contribute substantially to women\u2019s sexual and reproductive morbidity. In South America, evidence on clinically relevant genital microorganisms remains fragmented across countries, populations, and diagnostic approaches. This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Candida spp. among women in South America. Methods: We searched PubMed\/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and SciELO for studies published from 1 January 2014 to 29 February 2024. Eligible studies reported prevalence data for at least one target microorganism in female populations from South American countries. Two reviewers independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed methodological quality using Joanna Briggs Institute criteria for prevalence studies. Crude prevalence and random-effects pooled prevalence estimates with 95% confidence intervals were calculated. The review protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420261324060). Results: Of 629 records identified, 51 studies from eight South American countries and French Guiana met the eligibility criteria for the systematic review, and 46 contributed to the main pooled prevalence meta-analysis. Substantial between-study heterogeneity was observed across all pathogen-specific analyses. Pooled prevalence was highest for G. vaginalis (28%), followed by Candida spp. (12%), C. trachomatis (7%), T. vaginalis (6%), and N. gonorrhoeae (3.2%). Conclusions: This review highlights the heterogeneous burden of clinically relevant genital microorganisms among women in South America and supports standardized diagnostic approaches, clearer phenotypic definitions, and stronger surveillance across underrepresented regional settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15090888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T14:49:34Z","timestamp":1787582974000},"page":"888","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prevalence of Five Clinically Relevant Genital Microorganisms Among Women in South America, 2014\u20132024: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ver\u00f3nica Gabriela","family":"Osorio Pozo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Universidad de las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"},{"name":"PhD Programme in Epidemiology and Public Health, International Doctoral School, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Gabriella","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Marcano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Universidad de las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Bastidas-Caldes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Universidad Esp\u00edritu Santo, Samborond\u00f3n 0901952, Ecuador"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INABIO), Quito 170515, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2316-1045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana M.","family":"Mart\u00ednez-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication and Sociology, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28942 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"Calvopi\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, School of Medicine, Universidad de las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) [Internet], World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.18.228486","article-title":"Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, trichomoniasis and syphilis: Global prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016","volume":"97","author":"Rowley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7004a1","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021","volume":"70","author":"Workowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2013.05.006","article-title":"The global epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis: A systematic review","volume":"209","author":"Kenyon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu089","article-title":"Role of Gardnerella vaginalis in the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis: A conceptual model","volume":"210","author":"Schwebke","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4610","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI57172","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome and sexually transmitted infections: An epidemiologic perspective","volume":"121","author":"Brotman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60917-9","article-title":"Vulvovaginal candidosis","volume":"369","author":"Sobel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"e73","article-title":"A systematic review of the prevalence of selected sexually transmitted infections in young people in Latin America and the Caribbean","volume":"46","author":"Mello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Panam. Salud Publica"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"e103","article-title":"Igualdad de g\u00e9nero y equidad en salud","volume":"45","author":"Coates","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Panam. Salud Publica"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Pan American Health Organization (2010). The Health of Adolescents and Youth in the Americas [Internet], Pan American Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/iris.paho.org\/items\/643e9065-e334-4e10-b6f4-e063a25a10c5."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). Accelerating the Global Sexually Transmitted Infection Response: Progress and Opportunities, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000001932","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome and its relationship to behavior, sexual health, and sexually transmitted diseases","volume":"129","author":"Lewis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(12)70144-5","article-title":"Prevalences of sexually transmitted infections in young adults and female sex workers in Peru: A national population-based survey","volume":"12","author":"Campos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belfort, I.K.P., Cunha, A.P.A., Mendes, F.P.B., Galv\u00e3o-Moreira, L.V., Lemos, R.G., Costa, L.H.L., Monteiro, P., Ferreira, M.B., dos Santos, G.R.B., and Costa, J.L. (2021). Trichomonas vaginalis as a risk factor for human papillomavirus: A study with women undergoing cervical cancer screening in a northeast region of Brazil. BMC Womens Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-021-01320-6"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjm.2016.09.006","article-title":"Prevalence of Candida spp. in cervical-vaginal samples and the in vitro susceptibility of isolates","volume":"48","author":"Brandolt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.6474","article-title":"Genotyping and prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women in Bel\u00e9m, Par\u00e1, northern Brazil","volume":"10","author":"Brasiliense","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2018-053635","article-title":"Aptima Trichomonas vaginalis assay elucidates significant underdiagnosis of trichomoniasis among women in Brazil according to an observational study","volume":"95","author":"Bruni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2014-051531","article-title":"Feasibility of Chlamydia trachomatis screening and treatment in pregnant women in Lima, Peru: A prospective study in two large urban hospitals","volume":"91","author":"Cabeza","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1007\/s42770-023-01039-6","article-title":"Neisseria gonorrhoeae prevalence in females in S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil: Surveillance of the infection over an 11-year period","volume":"54","author":"Campaner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amorim, A.T., Marques, L.M., Campos, G.B., Lob\u00e3o, T.N., Lino, V.S., Cintra, R.C., Andreoli, M.A., Villa, L.L., Boccardo, E., and Junior, A.C.R.B. (2017). Co-infection of sexually transmitted pathogens and human papillomavirus in cervical samples of women of Brazil. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2835-5"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.1590\/s1678-9946201961006","article-title":"High prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis in pregnant women attended at primary health care services in Amazon, Brazil","volume":"61","author":"Azevedo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbosa, M.S., Andrade de Souza, I.B., Schnaufer, E.C.S., Silva, L.F., Maymone Gon\u00e7alves, C.C., Simionatto, S., and Marchioro, S.B. (2020). Prevalence and factors associated with Trichomonas vaginalis infection in indigenous Brazilian women. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240323"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.03.1389","article-title":"Sexually transmitted bacterial infections among young women in Central Western Brazil","volume":"25","author":"Turchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00174919","DOI":"10.1590\/0102-311x00174919","article-title":"Infec\u00e7\u00f5es sexualmente transmiss\u00edveis em mulheres afrodescendentes de comunidades quilombolas no Brasil: Preval\u00eancia e fatores associados","volume":"37","author":"Dias","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2023.102794","article-title":"Factors associated with Trichomonas vaginalis infection in reproductive-aged women attending cervical screening in southeast of Brazil","volume":"27","author":"Bolpet","year":"2023","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"dos Santos, L.M., Vieira, M.R.M.S., Oliveira, J.F.G., Trindade, J.Q., Brasiliense, D.M., Ferrari, S.F., Tsutsumi, M.Y., Fuzii, H.T., Junior, E.C.S., and Ishikawa, E.A.Y. (2018). High prevalence of sexual Chlamydia trachomatis infection in young women from Maraj\u00f3 Island, in the Brazilian Amazon. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0207853"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"dos Santos, L.M., Souza, J.D., Mbakwa, H.A., Nobre, A.F.S., Vieira, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Rodrigues, A.R., Ishikawa, E.A.Y., Guerreiro, J.F., and de Sousa, M.S. (2022). High prevalence of sexual infection by human papillomavirus and Chlamydia trachomatis in sexually-active women from a large city in the Amazon region of Brazil. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0270874"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"dos Santos, L.M., Vieira, M.R.M.S., Vieira, R.C., Silva, L.B.L., Mac\u00eado, G.M.M., Miranda, A.E., Brasiliense, D.M., Guimar\u00e3es, R.J.d.P.S.E., Sousa, E.C., and Ferrari, S.F. (2024). Prevalence and circulant genotypes of Chlamydia trachomatis in university women from cities in the Brazilian Amazon. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0287119"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatti, F.A.A., Ceolan, E., Greco, F.S.R., Santos, P.C., Klafke, G.B., Oliveira, G.R., Von Groll, A., De Martinez, A.M.B., Gon\u00e7alves, C.V., and Scaini, C.J. (2017). The prevalence of trichomoniasis and associated factors among women treated at a university hospital in southern Brazil. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173604"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2013-051384","article-title":"Cross-sectional study of genital carcinogenic HPV infections in Paramaribo, Suriname: Prevalence and determinants in an ethnically diverse population of women in a pre-vaccination era","volume":"90","author":"Geraets","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"e00067415","article-title":"Chlamydia trachomatis infection in young pregnant women in Southern Brazil: A cross-sectional study","volume":"33","author":"Sclowitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"781","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Trichomonas vaginalis infection in Chilean women attending primary health care centres","volume":"146","author":"Huneeus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Chil."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"38","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in asymptomatic women attending gynecological clinics in Argentina","volume":"93","author":"Jorda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.7705\/biomedica.6246","article-title":"Detecci\u00f3n de infecci\u00f3n por Chlamydia trachomatis en mujeres sexualmente activas en Venezuela","volume":"42","author":"Joya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biom\u00e9dica"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiguen, A.X., Marram\u00e1, M., Ruiz, S., Estofan, P., Venezuela, R.F., Mosmann, J.P., Monetti, M.S., Rivero, V., and Cuffini, C.G. (2019). Prevalence, risk factors and molecular characterization of Chlamydia trachomatis in pregnant women from C\u00f3rdoba, Argentina: A prospective study. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0217245"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llangar\u00ed-Arizo, L.M., Sadiq, S.T., M\u00e1rquez, C., Cooper, P., Furegato, M., Zhou, L., Aranha, L., Mateo, M.M., and Romero-Sandoval, N. (2021). Sexually transmitted infections and factors associated with risky sexual practices among female sex workers: A cross-sectional study in a large Andean city. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250117"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817001145","article-title":"Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum in sexually active women attending public health clinics in Brazil","volume":"145","author":"Campos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-014-3514-z","article-title":"Genital tract infection with Chlamydia trachomatis in women attended at a cervical cancer screening program in Northeastern Brazil","volume":"291","author":"Miranda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2020.04.014","article-title":"High prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Western French Guiana","volume":"24","author":"Manca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.18597\/rcog.3183","article-title":"Prevalencia de agentes microbiol\u00f3gicos potencialmente pat\u00f3genos en el exudado vaginal de gestantes asintom\u00e1ticas, Barranquilla, Colombia, 2014\u20132015","volume":"70","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Colomb. Obstet. Ginecol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22597","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-02135-z","article-title":"Trichomonas vaginalis follow-up and persistence in Colombian women","volume":"11","author":"Camargo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1735299","article-title":"Concordance between clinical and laboratory diagnosis of abnormal vaginal discharge in Chilean women","volume":"43","author":"Melo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Ginecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2014.07.002","article-title":"Trichomonas vaginalis infection among young pregnant women in Brazil","volume":"18","author":"Miranda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mosmann, J.P., Zayas, S., Kiguen, A.X., Venezuela, R.F., Rosato, O., and Cuffini, C.G. (2021). Human papillomavirus and Chlamydia trachomatis in oral and genital mucosa of women with normal and abnormal cervical cytology. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06118-3"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.riam.2016.09.001","article-title":"Prevalence of Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis and Candida africana in pregnant women suffering from vulvovaginal candidiasis in Argentina","volume":"34","author":"Mucci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Iberoam. Micol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00101015","DOI":"10.1590\/0102-311X00101015","article-title":"Evaluation of screening for Chlamydia trachomatis among young women in primary health care services in Manaus, Amazonas State, Brazil","volume":"32","author":"Neves","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nonato, D.R., Alves, R.R.F., Ribeiro, A.A., Saddi, V.A., Segati, K.D., Almeida, K.P., de Lima, Y.A.R., D\u2019Alessandro, W.B., and Rabelo-Santos, S.H. (2016). Prevalence and factors associated with co-infection of human papillomavirus and Chlamydia trachomatis in adolescents and young women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 215.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2016.07.003"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.7705\/biomedica.5225","article-title":"Prevalencia de Chlamydia trachomatis en la poblaci\u00f3n femenina asintom\u00e1tica atendida en los servicios de citolog\u00eda cervical de tres instituciones prestadoras de servicios de salud en Medell\u00edn, Colombia","volume":"40","author":"Baena","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biom\u00e9dica"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.7705\/biomedica.v35i3.2398","article-title":"Prevalencia de infecciones por Chlamydia trachomatis y Neisseria gonorrhoeae en adolescentes de colegios de la provincia de Sabana Centro, Cundinamarca, Colombia","volume":"35","author":"Paredes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biom\u00e9dica"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.3109\/00365548.2014.977341","article-title":"Chlamydia trachomatis genovars causing urogenital infections in Santiago, Chile","volume":"47","author":"Ovalle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1177\/0956462418809297","article-title":"Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women living in remote areas in Amazonas, Brazil: A self-collection screening experience","volume":"30","author":"Rocha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, L.L.S., Hardick, J., Nicol, A.F., Morgado, M.G., Martinelli, K.G., de Paula, V.S., Pilotto, J.H., and Gaydos, C.A. (2019). Sexually transmitted infections among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women in the Tapaj\u00f3s region, Amazon, Brazil: Self-collected vs clinician-collected samples. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0215001"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2020.101044","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections among women living with HIV in a Brazilian city","volume":"25","author":"Volpini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1590\/s1678-9946202163001","article-title":"High molecular prevalence of HPV and other sexually transmitted infections in a population of asymptomatic women who work or study at a Brazilian university","volume":"63","author":"Suehiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt, R., Muniz, R.R., Cola, E., Stauffert, D., Silveira, M.F., and Miranda, A.E. (2015). Maternal Chlamydia trachomatis infections and preterm births in a university hospital in Vitoria, Brazil. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141367"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0169-2016","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women with HIV in S\u00e3o Paulo","volume":"49","author":"Pinto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"gmr16029626","article-title":"Human papillomavirus, Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis in Amazonian women","volume":"16","author":"Jacinto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genet Mol. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18358","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74655-z","article-title":"Vaginal microbiota evaluation and prevalence of key pathogens in Ecuadorian women: An epidemiologic analysis","volume":"10","author":"Salinas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-021-05978-z","article-title":"Influence of Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus iners and Gardnerella vaginalis on bacterial vaginal composition in pregnant women","volume":"304","author":"Witkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000001276","article-title":"High prevalence of sexually transmitted infections in pregnant women living in Southern Brazil","volume":"48","author":"Yeganeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-10182016000600003","article-title":"La prevalencia actual de infecci\u00f3n genital por Chlamydia trachomatis en adolescentes y mujeres j\u00f3venes chilenas asintom\u00e1ticas justifica la vigilancia peri\u00f3dica","volume":"33","author":"Zamboni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Infectol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.31053\/1853.0605.v75.n3.19810","article-title":"Prevalencia de Chlamydia trachomatis en embarazadas durante el primer trimestre en una instituci\u00f3n privada de la ciudad de C\u00f3rdoba","volume":"75","author":"Zucotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Fac. Cien Med. Univ. Nac. Cordoba"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e054966","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-054966","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the homeless population of Medell\u00edn, Colombia: A cross-sectional study","volume":"12","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.8143","article-title":"Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis in women of reproductive age at a family health clinic","volume":"11","author":"Machado","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1177\/09564624231179277","article-title":"2023 update to 2018 European (IUSTI\/WHO) guideline on the management of vaginal discharge","volume":"34","author":"Sherrard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Recommendations for the Treatment of Trichomonas Vaginalis, Mycoplasma Genitalium, Candida Albicans, Bacterial Vaginosis and Human Papillomavirus (Anogenital Warts) [Internet], World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240096370."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000932","article-title":"Syndromic approaches for sexually transmitted infections: Added value of molecular diagnosis","volume":"20","author":"Opota","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000972","article-title":"High global burden and costs of bacterial vaginosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Peebles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Bacterial Vaginosis [Internet], World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/bacterial-vaginosis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbe, C., Mitchell, C., and Muzny, C.A. (2023). Bacterial vaginosis: A review of approaches to treatment and prevention. Front. Reprod. Health, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/frph.2023.1100029"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willems, H.M.E., Ahmed, S.S., Liu, J., Xu, Z., and Peters, B.M. (2020). Vulvovaginal candidiasis: A current understanding and burning questions. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6010027"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinosoglou, K., Schinas, G., Papageorgiou, D., Polyzou, E., Massie, Z., Ozcelik, S., Donders, F., and Donders, G. (2024). Rapid molecular diagnostics in vulvovaginal candidosis. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14202313"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002090","article-title":"Clinical validation of a test for the diagnosis of vaginitis","volume":"130","author":"Gaydos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz429","article-title":"Chlamydia trachomatis and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and female infertility: A retrospective cohort study among primary care patients","volume":"69","author":"Hoebe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2024.101027","article-title":"Reproductive tract complication risks following Chlamydia trachomatis infections: A long-term prospective cohort study from 2008 to 2022","volume":"45","author":"Alexiou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health Eur."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nabweyambo, S., Kakaire, O., Sowinski, S., Okeng, A., Ojiambo, H., Kimeze, J., Najjingo, I., and Bwanga, F. (2017). Very low sensitivity of wet mount microscopy compared to PCR against culture in the diagnosis of vaginal trichomoniasis in Uganda: A cross sectional study. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2581-1"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amor, I., Alberola, A., De Salazar, A., Vi\u00f1uela, L., \u00dabeda-Portugu\u00e9s, S., Gal\u00e1n, M.I., Mendoza, P., and Garc\u00eda, F. (2024). Evaluation of the Vaginal Panel Realtime PCR kit (Vircell, SL) for diagnosing vaginitis: A comparative study with routinely used diagnostics. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0313414"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2025051","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the global prevalence and infection risk factors of Trichomonas vaginalis","volume":"32","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Multi-Drug Resistant Gonorrhoea [Internet], World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/multi-drug-resistant-gonorrhoea."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savicheva, A.M. (2024). Molecular testing for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010449"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eleut\u00e9rio, J., Campaner, A.B., and De Carvalho, N.S. (2023). Diagnosis and treatment of infectious vaginitis: Proposal for a new algorithm. Front. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1040072"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/9\/888\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T09:15:05Z","timestamp":1787735705000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/9\/888"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15090888"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15090888","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]}}}