{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T17:09:41Z","timestamp":1788800981458,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788739200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UASVM Cluj-Napoca","award":["4064\/03.03.2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4064\/03.03.2023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brucella canis is a recognized zoonotic pathogen associated with human infection in a variety of epidemiological settings; however, the magnitude of its impact on human health remains uncertain because of its nonspecific clinical presentation, limited availability of species-specific diagnostic methods, and insufficient awareness among physicians, veterinarians, microbiologists, and public health professionals. Unlike classical human brucellosis caused by smooth Brucella species, B. canis infection may be overlooked, potentially leading to delayed diagnosis and incomplete case detection. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on the epidemiology, transmission pathways, occupational and non-occupational risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnostic approaches, treatment, and public health implications of human B. canis infection. Particular emphasis is placed on published human cases, laboratory-acquired infections, household clusters, cases reported in different age and immune-status groups, and the biological and epidemiological characteristics of canine infection that facilitate zoonotic transmission. The review further examines the limitations of currently available microbiological, serological, and molecular diagnostic methods, the lack of harmonized surveillance systems, and the consequences of inadequate recognition from a One Health perspective. Collectively, the available evidence confirms the zoonotic potential of B. canis but remains insufficient to define the true burden of human infection. Improving clinical awareness, strengthening collaboration between veterinary and human health sectors, expanding access to standardized diagnostic tools, and implementing integrated One Health surveillance may improve recognition and reduce zoonotic risk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15090947","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T16:30:02Z","timestamp":1788798602000},"page":"947","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Brucella canis as an Underrecognized Zoonotic Threat: Human Infection, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4181-0259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela","family":"Niculae","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4177-8305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petru Cosmin","family":"Pe\u015ftean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Mazanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2363-4041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George Cosmin","family":"Nad\u0103\u015f","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Smaranda","family":"Cr\u0103ciun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0600-0127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie Lea","family":"Oren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"},{"name":"MDBiosciences Innovalora Ltd., Rehovot 7608810, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioli","family":"Kontrafouri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6053-8138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haykanush","family":"Arakelyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Armenian National Agrarian University, Yerevan 0025, Armenia"},{"name":"Center for Ecological-Noosphere Studies NAS RA, Yerevan 0025, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249126","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2023.2249126","article-title":"The emergence of Brucella canis as a public health threat in Europe: What we know and what we need to learn","volume":"12","author":"Djokic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2023.05.002","article-title":"Update on Brucella canis: Understanding the past and preparing for the future","volume":"53","author":"Sebzda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"327","article-title":"Brucellosis in humans caused by Brucella canis: A scoping review","volume":"66","author":"Weese","year":"2025","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, R.L., Souza, T.D., Mol, J.P.S., Eckstein, C., and Paix\u00e3o, T.A. (2021). Canine brucellosis: An update. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.594291"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4861","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00995-15","article-title":"Brucella canis is an intracellular pathogen that induces a lower proinflammatory response than smooth zoonotic counterparts","volume":"83","author":"Medina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Espinoza, G., Arce-Gorvel, V., M\u00e9met, S., and Gorvel, J.-P. (2021). Brucella: Reservoirs and niches in animals and humans. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020186"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebani, V.V. (2023). Risks of Brucella spp. infection in dogs. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12101209"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-026-04800-1","article-title":"Biological characteristics, human cell interaction mechanisms, and differential clinical outcomes of infection by Brucella melitensis, Brucella abortus, Brucella suis, and Brucella canis","volume":"208","author":"Cheng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1491","DOI":"10.31533\/pubvet.v17n12e1491","article-title":"Problematiza\u00e7\u00e3o da brucelose canina: Relato de caso","volume":"17","author":"Silvestrini","year":"2023","journal-title":"PUBVET"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1002\/inpr.416","article-title":"Brucella canis: A clinical review and rationalising risk","volume":"46","author":"Woods","year":"2024","journal-title":"In Pract."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.48165\/ijar.2023.44.02.2","article-title":"A comprehensive review of Brucella canis: Zoonotic risks and preventive strategies","volume":"44","author":"Rasool","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2023.106017","article-title":"Prevalence of Brucella species in stray cattle, dogs and cats: A systematic review","volume":"219","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62776","DOI":"10.5812\/archcid.62776","article-title":"Human brucellosis caused by Brucella canis: A rare case report","volume":"13","author":"Majzoobi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perletta, F., Di Pancrazio, C., Rodomonti, D., Di Febo, T., Luciani, M., Krasteva, I.M., Maggetti, M., Profeta, F., Salini, R., and De Massis, F. (2023). Evaluation of three serological tests for diagnosis of canine brucellosis. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11092162"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(69)90551-0","article-title":"Epidemic canine brucellosis due to a new species, Brucella canis","volume":"294","author":"Morisset","year":"1969","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1001.020622","article-title":"Human infection with M\u2212 strain of Brucella canis","volume":"10","author":"Wallach","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12163","article-title":"Human Brucella canis infection and subsequent laboratory exposures associated with a puppy, New York City, 2012","volume":"62","author":"Dentinger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2489","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2709.204701","article-title":"Laboratory exposures from an unsuspected case of human infection with Brucella canis","volume":"27","author":"Roman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2408.171171","article-title":"Brucellosis in dogs and public health risk","volume":"24","author":"Hensel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schiavo, L., Ribeiro, M.L., De Almeida, M.B., Da Cunha, G.R., Esp\u00edrito Santo, G.A.N., Morikawa, V.M., Vicente, A.F., Ponsart, C., De Santi, C.E., and Kmetiuk, L.B. (2024). One Health approach for Brucella canis: Serological and molecular detection in animal-hoarding individuals and their dogs. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011974"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marenzoni, M.L., Attura, S., Favi, B., Antognoni, M.T., Conti, M.B., Felici, A., Maresca, C., Scoccia, E., Bonci, M.R., and Pistolesi, A. (2025). Absence of Brucella canis detection in dogs from Central Italy: Implications for regional surveillance and zoonotic risk. Epidemiologia, 6.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202507.1467.v1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2019.02.013","article-title":"Canine brucellosis: Old foe and reemerging scourge","volume":"49","author":"Kauffman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Kazmierczak, J. (2012). Public Health Implications of Brucella canis Infections in Humans, National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2026.101506","article-title":"Brucella canis in dogs: An underrecognized zoonotic pathogen requiring a One Health response","volume":"23","author":"Storoni","year":"2026","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2025.101225","article-title":"Global epidemiology and diagnostic insights into canine brucellosis: A comprehensive meta-analysis and meta-regression","volume":"21","author":"Dadar","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations Environment Programme, and World Organisation for Animal Health (2022). One Health Joint Plan of Action (2022\u20132026): Working Together for the Health of Humans, Animals, Plants and the Environment, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2004.05.005","article-title":"Canine brucellosis","volume":"82\u201383","author":"Wanke","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2006.04.011","article-title":"Canine brucellosis: Outbreaks and compliance","volume":"66","author":"Hollett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"74","article-title":"Brucella canis: An Update on Research and Clinical Management","volume":"59","author":"Cosford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70112","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.70112","article-title":"Clinical features that increase suspicion of Brucella canis infection in dogs with discospondylitis: A multicenter case-control study","volume":"39","author":"Moeller","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, C., Burgers, E., Copple, C., Stainback, L., Packer, R.A., Kopf, K., Schmidt, J., Emch, S., and Windsor, R. (2022). Brucella canis discospondylitis in 33 dogs. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1043610"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1301","article-title":"Brucella canis sacroiliitis and discospondylitis in a dog","volume":"60","author":"Forbes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25651-x","article-title":"Tissue distribution and cell tropism of Brucella canis in naturally infected canine foetuses and neonates","volume":"8","author":"Mol","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2019.04.015","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Brucella canis antibodies in dogs entering a Minnesota humane society, Minnesota, 2016\u20132017","volume":"168","author":"Whitten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2020.105157","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Brucella canis in dogs rescued from South Dakota Indian reservations, 2015\u20132019","volume":"184","author":"Daly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2024.110183","article-title":"Transmission of Brucella canis in a canine kennel following introduction of an infected dog","volume":"296","author":"Graham","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2707.201238","article-title":"Transboundary spread of Brucella canis through import of infected dogs, the Netherlands, November 2016\u2013December 2018","volume":"27","author":"Engelsma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., Wang, P., Yang, X., Zhao, S., Zhang, Q., Yang, F., Liu, Z., and Yu, B. (2026). Evolution and phylogenetic characteristics of the first Brucella canis strain isolated from a human patient in Yunnan Province, China. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1743711"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2025.110810","article-title":"Identification and phylogenetic analysis of a Brucella canis isolate from an aborted canine fetus","volume":"312","author":"Zhao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13404","article-title":"Investigation of the molecular epizootiological characteristics and tracking of the geographical origins of Brucella canis strains in China","volume":"67","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galarce, N., Escobar, B., Mart\u00ednez, E., Alvarado, N., Peralta, G., Dettleff, P., Dorner, J., Mart\u00ednez, V., and Borie, C. (2020). Prevalence and genomic characterization of Brucella canis strains isolated from kennels, household, and stray dogs in Chile. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10112073"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.10.015","article-title":"Brucellosis outbreak in a Swedish kennel in 2013: Determination of genetic markers for source tracing","volume":"174","author":"Kaden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2021.109072","article-title":"Canine brucellosis in Costa Rica reveals widespread Brucella canis infection and the recent introduction of foreign strains","volume":"257","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gyuranecz, M., Rannals, B.D., Allen, C.A., J\u00e1nosi, S., Keim, P.S., and Foster, J.T. (2013). Within-host evolution of Brucella canis during a canine brucellosis outbreak in a kennel. BMC Vet. Res., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-9-76"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638719891083","article-title":"Diagnosis of canine brucellosis: Comparison of various serologic tests and PCR","volume":"32","author":"Mol","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2007.01.003","article-title":"A polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Brucella canis in semen of naturally infected dogs","volume":"67","author":"Keid","year":"2007","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2010.03.023","article-title":"Detection of Brucella canis from inguinal lymph nodes of naturally infected dogs by PCR","volume":"74","author":"Aras","year":"2010","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, S.Z., Li, Z.Y., Liu, Y.Y., Wu, Y.C., Yu, K.Y., and He, Z. (2025). Establishment of a rapid method for the detection of Brucella canis based on recombinase-mediated thermostable nucleic acid amplification technology. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1493492"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"5","article-title":"Canine brucellosis due to Brucella canis: Description of the disease and control measures","volume":"58","author":"Sacchini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12102","article-title":"Evidence for unapparent Brucella canis infections among adults with occupational exposure to dogs","volume":"61","author":"Krueger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.253.3.322","article-title":"Investigation and characterization of Brucella canis infections in pet-quality dogs and associated human exposures during a 2007\u20132016 outbreak in Michigan","volume":"253","author":"Johnson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2250","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac425","article-title":"First case of human Brucella canis infection in the Netherlands","volume":"75","author":"Kolwijck","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.45927-0","article-title":"Diagnosis of human brucellosis caused by Brucella canis","volume":"54","author":"Lucero","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268809990525","article-title":"Human Brucella canis outbreak linked to infection in dogs","volume":"138","author":"Lucero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, C.R., Cotrim de Almeida, J.V.F., Cardoso de Oliveira, I.R., Faria de Oliveira, L., Pereira, L.J., Zanger\u00f4nimo, M.G., Lage, A.P., and Dorneles, E.M.S. (2020). Occupational exposure to Brucella spp.: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008164"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.13121","article-title":"Human exposures to Brucella canis from a pregnant dog during an international flight: Public health risks, diagnostic challenges and future considerations","volume":"71","author":"Williams","year":"2024","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e119","DOI":"10.1086\/421024","article-title":"Prevention of laboratory-acquired brucellosis","volume":"38","author":"Robichaud","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3055","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00135-13","article-title":"A literature review of laboratory-acquired brucellosis","volume":"51","author":"Traxler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.3390\/zoonoticdis2040016","article-title":"Preventing laboratory-acquired brucellosis in the era of MALDI-TOF technology and molecular tests: A narrative review","volume":"2","author":"Yagupsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2026, July 04). Laboratory Risks for Brucellosis, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/brucellosis\/hcp\/laboratory-risks\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, S., Xu, J., Shen, Q., Ding, J., and Yang, X. (2026). Co-Infection of Brucella canis and Brucella melitensis in a Domestic Dog with Zoonotic Transmission to Human, China. Anim. Res. One Health, 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1002\/aro2.70057"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s42522-026-00212-9","article-title":"Epidemiological characteristics of brucellosis in non-occupational population in Zhejiang Province, China, 2018\u20132024: Epidemic trend and infection analysis","volume":"8","author":"Shi","year":"2026","journal-title":"One Health Outlook"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-76-3-435","article-title":"Human infection with Brucella canis","volume":"76","author":"Swenson","year":"1972","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1975.03240240037023","article-title":"Human disease caused by Brucella canis: A clinical and epidemiologic study of two cases","volume":"231","author":"Munford","year":"1975","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(75)90402-7","article-title":"Brucella canis: A cause of undulant fever","volume":"59","author":"Blankenship","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-197807000-00012","article-title":"Brucella canis bacteremia: A case with negative B canis agglutinins","volume":"276","author":"Rifkin","year":"1978","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1086\/313545","article-title":"Brucella canis endocarditis: Case report","volume":"29","author":"Ying","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s002470050760","article-title":"Brucellosis: Unusual presentations in two adolescent boys","volume":"30","author":"Piampiano","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pediatr. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2009.0034","article-title":"Brucella canis causing infection in an HIV-infected patient","volume":"10","author":"Lucero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1607.090209","article-title":"Human Brucella canis infections diagnosed by blood culture","volume":"16","author":"Nomura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3179","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.2961-19","article-title":"Chronic brucellosis in Japan","volume":"58","author":"Kawakami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.21037\/acr-24-110","article-title":"Brucellosis in pregnancy: A case report","volume":"9","author":"Dunn","year":"2025","journal-title":"AME Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.2664-23","article-title":"Meningoencephalomyelitis caused by Brucella canis: A case report and literature review","volume":"63","author":"Ishihara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijidoh.2025.100091","article-title":"Case report: Brucella canis infection in a resident of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa","volume":"9","author":"Bamford","year":"2025","journal-title":"IJID One Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.4067\/s0034-98872025001000695","article-title":"Serologic evidence of zoonotic infections by Brucella canis in Southern Chile: A neglected emerging disease","volume":"153","author":"Pinos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Chile"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2010.01334.x","article-title":"Brucella canis in an HIV-infected patient","volume":"58","author":"Lawaczeck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/77.6.740","article-title":"A microagglutination test for human Brucella canis antibodies","volume":"77","author":"Polt","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Bonaventura, G., Angeletti, S., Ianni, A., Petitti, T., and Gherardi, G. (2021). Microbiological laboratory diagnosis of human brucellosis: An overview. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10121623"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e04393","article-title":"Diagnosis of human and canine Brucella canis infection: Development and evaluation of indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using recombinant Brucella proteins","volume":"6","author":"Dabral","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2011.08.001","article-title":"Canine brucellosis management","volume":"41","author":"Makloski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations Environment Programme, and World Organisation for Animal Health (2023). A Guide to Implementing the One Health Joint Plan of Action at National Level, World Health Organization."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_82.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2016). Regulation","DOI":"10.59403\/1v8s9t8"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_82.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2016\/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on transmissible animal diseases and amending and repealing certain acts in the area of animal health ('Animal Health Law'). Off. J. Eur. Union, L84, 1-208."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2003). Directive 2003\/99\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 November 2003 on the monitoring of zoonoses and zoonotic agents, amending Council Decision 90\/424\/EEC and repealing Council Directive 92\/117\/EEC. Off. J. Eur. Union, L325, 31\u201340."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_84.1","unstructured":"European Commission (2018). Commission Implementing Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_84.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2018\/1882 of 3 December 2018 on the application of certain disease prevention and control rules to categories of listed diseases and establishing a list of species and groups of species posing a considerable risk for the spread of those listed diseases. Off. J. Eur. Union, L308, 21-29."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"UK Health Security Agency (2026, August 23). HAIRS Risk Assessment: Brucella canis, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/hairs-risk-assessment-brucella-canis."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (2026, August 24). Brucella canis: Testing Dogs before Import, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/guidance\/brucella-canis-testing-dogs-before-import."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/9\/947\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T16:46:55Z","timestamp":1788799615000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/15\/9\/947"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens15090947"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens15090947","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]}}}