{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T11:37:04Z","timestamp":1790941024276,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":154,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,21]],"date-time":"2015-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1432166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 AI083409"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI083409"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 AI093580"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI093580"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R56 AI091805"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56 AI091805"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arenaviruses include multiple human pathogens ranging from the low-risk lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) to highly virulent hemorrhagic fever (HF) causing viruses such as Lassa (LASV), Junin (JUNV), Machupo (MACV), Lujo (LUJV), Sabia (SABV), Guanarito (GTOV), and Chapare (CHPV), for which there are limited preventative and therapeutic measures. Why some arenaviruses can cause virulent human infections while others cannot, even though they are isolated from the same rodent hosts, is an enigma. Recent studies have revealed several potential pathogenic mechanisms of arenaviruses, including factors that increase viral replication capacity and suppress host innate immunity, which leads to high viremia and generalized immune suppression as the hallmarks of severe and lethal arenaviral HF diseases. This review summarizes current knowledge of the roles of each of the four viral proteins and some known cellular factors in the pathogenesis of arenaviral HF as well as of some human primary cell-culture and animal models that lend themselves to studying arenavirus-induced HF disease pathogenesis. Knowledge gained from these studies can be applied towards the development of novel therapeutics and vaccines against these deadly human pathogens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens4020283","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,21]],"date-time":"2015-05-21T10:30:59Z","timestamp":1432204259000},"page":"283-306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["Human Hemorrhagic Fever Causing Arenaviruses:  Molecular Mechanisms Contributing to Virus Virulence  and Disease Pathogenesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Junjie","family":"Shao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Ave.,  Ste 295, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuying","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Ave.,  Ste 295, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hinh","family":"Ly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Ave.,  Ste 295, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1086\/514211","article-title":"Protective efficacy of a live attenuated vaccine against Argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"177","author":"Maiztegui","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/10408360490497456","article-title":"Lassa virus","volume":"41","author":"Lenz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9418","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01112-14","article-title":"Human and host species transferrin receptor 1 use by North American arenaviruses","volume":"88","author":"Zong","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.057000-0","article-title":"Comparative analysis of disease pathogenesis and molecular mechanisms of New World and Old World arenavirus infections","volume":"95","author":"McLay","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radoshitzky, S.R., Bao, Y., Buchmeier, M.J., Charrel, R.N., Clawson, A.N., Clegg, C.S., DeRisi, J.L., Emonet, S., Gonzalez, J.P., and Kuhn, J.H. (2015). Past, present, and future of arenavirus taxonomy. Arch. Virol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2418-y"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1586\/eri.10.142","article-title":"Pathogenesis of arenavirus hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"9","author":"Moraz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-infective Ther."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1990.03450160063030","article-title":"Acute sensorineural deafness in Lassa fever","volume":"264","author":"Cummins","year":"1990","journal-title":"JAMA: J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000455","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000455","article-title":"Genetic detection and characterization of Lujo virus, a new hemorrhagic fever\u2013associated arenavirus from Southern Africa","volume":"5","author":"Briese","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1510.090211","article-title":"Nosocomial outbreak of novel arenavirus infection, Southern Africa","volume":"15","author":"Paweska","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp068021","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus \u2014 an old enemy up to new tricks","volume":"354","author":"Peters","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007434521082","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in Southern France: Four case reports and a review of the literature","volume":"13","author":"Rousseau","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.100.1.e9","article-title":"Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus syndrome: A disease that mimics congenital toxoplasmosis or cytomegalovirus infection","volume":"100","author":"Wright","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2012.02.002","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: An underrecognized cause of neurologic disease in the fetus, child, and adult","volume":"19","author":"Bonthius","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa053240","article-title":"Transmission of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus by organ transplantation","volume":"354","author":"Fischer","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1808.120212","article-title":"Solid organ transplant-associated lymphocytic choriomeningitis, United States, 2011","volume":"18","author":"MacNeil","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"799","article-title":"Brief report: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus transmitted through solid organ transplantation - Massachussetts, 2008","volume":"57","author":"Prevention","year":"2008","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000047","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000047","article-title":"Chapare virus, a newly discovered arenavirus isolated from a fatal hemorrhagic fever case in Bolivia","volume":"4","author":"Delgado","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)91226-2","article-title":"New arenavirus isolated in Brazil","volume":"343","author":"Lisieux","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1509.090017","article-title":"Reemergence of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, 2007\u20132008","volume":"15","author":"Aguilar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.6.15198","article-title":"Argentine hemorrhagic fever vaccines","volume":"7","author":"Ambrosio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00202-4","article-title":"Arenaviruses other than Lassa virus","volume":"57","author":"Charrel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.010","article-title":"Treatment of Argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"78","author":"Enria","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.05.014","article-title":"Genetic diversity between and within the arenavirus species indigenous to Western Venezuela","volume":"378","author":"Fulhorst","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1086\/514749","article-title":"Clinical case definitions for Argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"28","author":"Harrison","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1086\/516299","article-title":"Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever: Clinical and epidemiological studies of 165 cases","volume":"26","author":"Manzione","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Baron, S. (1996). Medical Microbiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"139","article-title":"Arenaviruses: Genomic RNAs, transcription, and replication","volume":"262","author":"Meyer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Knipe, D.M.H., and Peter, M. (2007). Fields Virology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.282.5396.2079","article-title":"Identification of alpha-dystroglycan as a receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Lassa fever virus","volume":"282","author":"Cao","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5140","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.10.5140-5146.2002","article-title":"New world arenavirus Clade C, but not Clade A and B viruses, utilizes alpha-dystroglycan as its major receptor","volume":"76","author":"Spiropoulou","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.07.002","article-title":"Alpha-dystroglycan can mediate arenavirus infection in the absence of beta-dystroglycan","volume":"316","author":"Kunz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5685","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02574-06","article-title":"Old World and Clade C New World arenaviruses mimic the molecular mechanism of receptor recognition used by \u03b1-dystroglycan's host-derived ligands","volume":"81","author":"Rojek","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/004721-0","article-title":"Post-translational modification of {alpha}-dystroglycan is not critical for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus receptor function in vivo","volume":"89","author":"Imperiali","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200104103","article-title":"Molecular analysis of the interaction of LCMV with its cellular receptor [alpha]-dystroglycan","volume":"155","author":"Kunz","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5979","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.10.5979-5987.2005","article-title":"Characterization of the interaction of Lassa fever virus with its cellular receptor alpha-dystroglycan","volume":"79","author":"Kunz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2004.04.044","article-title":"Electron microscopy of an alpha-dystroglycan fragment containing receptor sites for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and laminin, and use of the receptoid body as a reagent to neutralize virus","volume":"325","author":"Kunz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4493","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e07-04-0374","article-title":"Old World arenavirus infection interferes with the expression of functional \u03b1-dystroglycan in the host cell","volume":"18","author":"Rojek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"349","article-title":"Pathologic and virologic study of fatal Lassa fever in man","volume":"107","author":"Walker","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06451-11","article-title":"Identification of cell surface molecules involved in dystroglycan-independent Lassa virus cell entry","volume":"86","author":"Shimojima","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4071","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03268-12","article-title":"Is the TAM receptor Axl A receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus?","volume":"87","author":"Sullivan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0122839","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122839","article-title":"Novel mechanism of arenavirus-induced liver pathology","volume":"10","author":"Beier","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS ONE"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/2.10.1651","article-title":"Human dystroglycan: Skeletal muscle cDNA, genomic structure, origin of tissue specific isoforms and chromosomal localization","volume":"2","author":"Milatovich","year":"1993","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"282","article-title":"Reproduction of Lassa virus in different cell cultures","volume":"27","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1983","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1252480","article-title":"Virus entry. Lassa virus entry requires a trigger-induced receptor switch","volume":"344","author":"Jae","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05539","article-title":"Transferrin receptor 1 is a cellular receptor for New World haemorrhagic fever arenaviruses","volume":"446","author":"Radoshitzky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01397-07","article-title":"New World Clade B arenaviruses can use transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1)-dependent and -independent entry pathways, and glycoproteins from human pathogenic strains are associated with the use of TfR1","volume":"82","author":"Flanagan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2007.01113.x","article-title":"Cell entry by human pathogenic arenaviruses","volume":"10","author":"Rojek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4024","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06397-11","article-title":"An antibody recognizing the apical domain of human transferrin receptor 1 efficiently inhibits the entry of all New World hemorrhagic fever arenaviruses","volume":"86","author":"Helguera","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2664","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0709254105","article-title":"Receptor determinants of zoonotic transmission of New World hemorrhagic fever arenaviruses","volume":"105","author":"Radoshitzky","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2000). Fatal illnesses associated with a New World arenavirus\u2014California, 1999\u20132000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep., 49, 709\u2013711."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1126\/science.289.5481.842","article-title":"Emerging diseases. New arenavirus blamed for recent deaths in California","volume":"289","author":"Enserink","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1417","article-title":"Novel arenavirus infection in humans, United States","volume":"17","author":"Milazzo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1718","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.3.1718-1726.2003","article-title":"The natural host range shift and subsequent evolution of canine parvovirus resulted from virus-specific binding to the canine transferrin receptor","volume":"77","author":"Hueffer","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12386","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.192360099","article-title":"Mouse transferrin receptor 1 is the cell entry receptor for mouse mammary tumor virus","volume":"99","author":"Ross","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001571","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001571","article-title":"Dual host-virus arms races shape an essential housekeeping protein","volume":"11","author":"Demogines","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2011.07.014","article-title":"Transferrin receptor 1 in the zoonosis and pathogenesis of New World hemorrhagic fever arenaviruses","volume":"14","author":"Choe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2013.10.106","article-title":"Utilization of human DC-SIGN and l-SIGN for entry and infection of host cells by the New World arenavirus, Junin virus","volume":"441","author":"Martinez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5897","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00008-06","article-title":"Identification of an N-terminal trimeric coiled-coil core within arenavirus glycoprotein 2 permits assignment to class I viral fusion proteins","volume":"80","author":"Eschli","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-1-1","article-title":"The viral transmembrane superfamily: Possible divergence of arenavirus and filovirus glycoproteins from a common RNA virus ancestor","volume":"1","author":"Gallaher","year":"2001","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.08.048","article-title":"Distinct requirements for signal peptidase processing and function in the stable signal peptide subunit of the Jun\u00edn virus envelope glycoprotein","volume":"359","author":"York","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.04.046","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus uses a novel endocytic pathway for infectious entry via late endosomes","volume":"378","author":"Quirin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002232","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002232","article-title":"Old World arenaviruses enter the host cell via the multivesicular body and depend on the endosomal sorting complex required for transport","volume":"7","author":"Pasqual","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13793","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.24.13793-13803.2004","article-title":"Replicon system for Lassa virus","volume":"78","author":"Hass","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3470","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.8.3470-3477.2000","article-title":"NP and L proteins of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) are sufficient for efficient transcription and replication of LCMV genomic RNA analogs","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12241","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.24.12241-12251.2001","article-title":"Transcription and RNA replication of Tacaribe virus genome and antigenome analogs require N and L proteins: Z protein is an inhibitor of these processes","volume":"75","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.09.009","article-title":"Sequence analysis of L RNA of Lassa virus","volume":"318","author":"Vieth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00721-10","article-title":"Domain structure of Lassa virus L protein","volume":"85","author":"Brunotte","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38748","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.278838","article-title":"Structure of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein revealed by X-ray crystallography, small-angle X-ray scattering, and electron microscopy","volume":"286","author":"Brunotte","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3867","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1989.tb08565.x","article-title":"Identification of four conserved motifs among the RNA-dependent polymerase encoding elements","volume":"8","author":"Poch","year":"1989","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8713","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00652-14","article-title":"Role of the C terminus of Lassa virus L protein in viral mRNA synthesis","volume":"88","author":"Lehmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001038","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001038","article-title":"The N-terminal domain of the arenavirus L protein is an RNA endonuclease essential in mRNA transcription","volume":"6","author":"Morin","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e87577","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0087577","article-title":"High-resolution structure of the N-terminal endonuclease domain of the Lassa virus L polymerase in complex with magnesium ions","volume":"9","author":"Wallat","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(90)90053-T","article-title":"Nontemplated bases at the 5' ends of Tacaribe virus mRNAs","volume":"74","author":"Raju","year":"1990","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09605","article-title":"Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by Lassa nucleoprotein structure","volume":"468","author":"Qi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"1766","article-title":"Participation of eIF4F complex in Junin virus infection: Blockage of eIF4E does not impair virus replication","volume":"15","author":"Linero","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6492","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00321-14","article-title":"Differential contributions of Tacaribe arenavirus nucleoprotein N-terminal and C-terminal residues to nucleocapsid functional activity","volume":"88","author":"Loureiro","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9415","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.19.9415-9426.2001","article-title":"Ring finger Z protein of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) inhibits transcription and RNA replication of an LCMV S-segment minigenome","volume":"75","author":"Cornu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2979","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.6.2979-2983.2004","article-title":"Cells expressing the ring finger Z protein are resistant to arenavirus infection","volume":"78","author":"Cornu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6678","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.13.6678-6688.2002","article-title":"Characterization of the arenavirus ring finger Z protein regions required for Z-mediated inhibition of viral RNA synthesis","volume":"76","author":"Cornu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19743","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1112742108","article-title":"Arenavirus Z protein controls viral RNA synthesis by locking a polymerase\u2013promoter complex","volume":"108","author":"Kranzusch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(03)00160-1","article-title":"Signal peptide of Lassa virus glycoprotein GPC exhibits an unusual length","volume":"538","author":"Eichler","year":"2003","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2866","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.5.2866-2872.2003","article-title":"Endoproteolytic processing of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus glycoprotein by the subtilase SKI-1\/S1P","volume":"77","author":"Beyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4935","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00024-12","article-title":"Molecular characterization of the processing of arenavirus envelope glycoprotein precursors by subtilisin kexin isozyme-1\/site-1 protease","volume":"86","author":"Burri","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12701","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.221447598","article-title":"The Lassa virus glycoprotein precursor GPC is proteolytically processed by subtilase SKI-1\/S1P","volume":"98","author":"Lenz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(90)90471-3","article-title":"Post-translational processing of the glycoproteins of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"177","author":"Wright","year":"1990","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-3-41","article-title":"The role of single N-glycans in proteolytic processing and cell surface transport of the Lassa virus glycoprotein GPC","volume":"3","author":"Eichler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12304","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05691-11","article-title":"Molecular determinants of arenavirus Z protein homo-oligomerization and l polymerase binding","volume":"85","author":"Loureiro","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.09.044","article-title":"Late budding domains and host proteins in enveloped virus release","volume":"344","author":"Bieniasz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.str.2010.08.010","article-title":"Crystallographic and functional analysis of the ESCRT-I\/HIV-1 gag PTAP interaction","volume":"18","author":"Im","year":"2010","journal-title":"Structure"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4679","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.10.4679-4687.2002","article-title":"Viral late domains","volume":"76","author":"Freed","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.3390\/v4091651","article-title":"Uncovering viral protein-protein interactions and their role in arenavirus life cycle","volume":"4","author":"Loureiro","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9451","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00499-07","article-title":"Arenavirus Z-glycoprotein association requires Z myristoylation but not functional RING or late domains","volume":"81","author":"Capul","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7029","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00329-09","article-title":"The RING domain and the L79 residue of Z protein are involved in both the rescue of nucleocapsids and the incorporation of glycoproteins into infectious chimeric arenavirus-like particles","volume":"83","author":"Casabona","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13038","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05834-11","article-title":"The C-terminal region of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus nucleoprotein contains distinct and segregable functional domains involved in NP-Z interaction and counteraction of the type I interferon response","volume":"85","author":"Cheng","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01875-10","article-title":"Identification of two functional domains within the arenavirus nucleoprotein","volume":"85","author":"Loureiro","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9794","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00385-12","article-title":"Biological roles and functional mechanisms of arenavirus Z protein in viral replication","volume":"86","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.012317299","article-title":"Self-assembly properties of a model RING domain","volume":"99","author":"Kentsis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.3390\/v5020528","article-title":"Arenavirus budding: A common pathway with mechanistic differences","volume":"5","author":"Wolff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4519","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.7.4519-4526.2005","article-title":"Dual role of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus intergenic region in transcription termination and virus propagation","volume":"79","author":"Pinschewer","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.1.448-457.2001","article-title":"Differences in affinity of binding of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus strains to the cellular receptor \u03b1-dystroglycan correlate with viral tropism and disease kinetics","volume":"75","author":"Smelt","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2011.0299","article-title":"Genome-wide scans provide evidence for positive selection of genes implicated in Lassa fever","volume":"367","author":"Andersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06250","article-title":"Genome-wide detection and characterization of positive selection in human populations","volume":"449","author":"Sabeti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"65","article-title":"Human infection with arenaviruses in the Americas","volume":"262","author":"Peters","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"567","article-title":"Clinical and epidemiological patterns of Argentine haemorrhagic fever","volume":"52","author":"Maiztegui","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000358","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000358","article-title":"Host-species transferrin receptor 1 orthologs are cellular receptors for nonpathogenic New World Clade B arenaviruses","volume":"5","author":"Abraham","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.10.004","article-title":"Receptor use by the Whitewater Arroyo virus glycoprotein","volume":"371","author":"Reignier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2012.07.009","article-title":"Characterization of virulence-associated determinants in the envelope glycoprotein of Pichinde virus","volume":"433","author":"Kumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"228","article-title":"Pathological and virological features of arenavirus disease in guinea pigs. Comparison of two Pichinde virus strains","volume":"145","author":"Aronson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.32.2.872-880.1981","article-title":"Pathogenesis of a Pichinde virus strain adapted to produce lethal infections in guinea pigs","volume":"32","author":"Jahrling","year":"1981","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10404","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00856-11","article-title":"The major determinant of attenuation in mice of the Candid1 vaccine for Argentine hemorrhagic fever is located in the G2 glycoprotein transmembrane domain","volume":"85","author":"Bird","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13457","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05616-11","article-title":"Substitutions in the glycoprotein (GP) of the Candid#1 vaccine strain of Junin virus increase dependence on human transferrin receptor 1 for entry and destabilize the metastable conformation of GP","volume":"85","author":"Reignier","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.07.057","article-title":"Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the ML29 reassortant vaccine for Lassa fever in small non-human primates","volume":"26","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.02.038","article-title":"A ML29 reassortant virus protects guinea pigs against a distantly related Nigerian strain of Lassa virus and can provide sterilizing immunity","volume":"25","author":"Carrion","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.46.2.638-641.1983","article-title":"Gene mapping in Pichinde virus: Assignment of viral polypeptides to genomic L and S RNAs","volume":"46","author":"Harnish","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.59.2.363-368.1986","article-title":"Genetic reassortants of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: Unexpected disease and mechanism of pathogenesis","volume":"59","author":"Riviere","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.07.057","article-title":"Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the ML29 reassortant vaccine for Lassa fever in small non-human primates","volume":"26","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2944","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03349-14","article-title":"The Z proteins of pathogenic but not nonpathogenic arenaviruses inhibit RIG-i-like receptor-dependent interferon production","volume":"89","author":"Xing","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01362-09","article-title":"Z proteins of New World arenaviruses bind RIG-i and interfere with type I interferon induction","volume":"84","author":"Fan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-006-0050-3","article-title":"Molecular characterization of a reassortant virus derived from Lassa and Mopeia viruses","volume":"34","author":"Moshkoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.456","article-title":"Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patients","volume":"155","author":"Johnson","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21641","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1011998107","article-title":"Viral replicative capacity is the primary determinant of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus persistence and immunosuppression","volume":"107","author":"Bergthaler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7340","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.12.7340-7349.1993","article-title":"Molecular determinants of macrophage tropism and viral persistence: Importance of single amino acid changes in the polymerase and glycoprotein of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"67","author":"Matloubian","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02556-10","article-title":"Efficient rescue of recombinant Lassa virus reveals the influence of S segment noncoding regions on virus replication and virulence","volume":"85","author":"Bird","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6635","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00044-13","article-title":"Identification of virulence determinants within the L genomic segment of the Pichinde arenavirus","volume":"87","author":"McLay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9192","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00555-06","article-title":"Inhibition of the type I interferon response by the nucleoprotein of the prototypic arenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"80","author":"Rosario","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16949","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.420521","article-title":"Structures of arenaviral nucleoproteins with triphosphate dsRNA reveal a unique mechanism of immune suppression","volume":"288","author":"Jiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016404108","article-title":"Structure of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein reveals a dsRNA-specific 3\u2032 to 5\u2032 exonuclease activity essential for immune suppression","volume":"108","author":"Hastie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Huang, Q., Shao, J., Lan, S., Zhou, Y., Xing, J., Dong, C., Liang, Y., and Ly, H. (2015). In vitro and in vivo characterizations of the Pichinde viral NP exoribonuclease function. J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12093","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00429-11","article-title":"Lassa virus nucleoprotein mutants generated by reverse genetics induce a robust type I interferon response in human dendritic cells and macrophages","volume":"85","author":"Carnec","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13811","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01908-14","article-title":"The exonuclease domain of Lassa virus nucleoprotein is involved in antigen-presenting-cell-mediated NK cell responses","volume":"88","author":"Russier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7728","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00187-12","article-title":"Arenavirus nucleoprotein targets interferon regulatory factor-activating kinase IKK\u03b5","volume":"86","author":"Pythoud","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8185","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.07240-11","article-title":"Arenavirus nucleoproteins prevent activation of Nuclear factor Kappa b","volume":"86","author":"Rodrigo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9452","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00155-10","article-title":"Induction and inhibition of type I interferon responses by distinct components of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus","volume":"84","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virology"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.6.2797","article-title":"Cutting edge: Impairment of dendritic cells and adaptive immunity by Ebola and Lassa viruses","volume":"170","author":"Mahanty","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2861","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.172.5.2861","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of human dendritic cells and macrophages is productive but fails to activate cells","volume":"172","author":"Baize","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9071(199912)59:4<552::AID-JMV21>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Lassa and Mopeia virus replication in human monocytes\/macrophages and in endothelial cells: Different effects on IL-8 and TNF-alpha gene expression","volume":"59","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10516","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10516-10524.2004","article-title":"Human macrophages, but not dendritic cells, are activated and produce alpha\/beta interferons in response to Mopeia virus infection","volume":"78","author":"Pannetier","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1137","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001137","article-title":"Tacaribe virus but not Junin virus infection induces cytokine release from primary human monocytes and macrophages","volume":"5","author":"Groseth","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.12.139","article-title":"The search for animal models for Lassa fever vaccine development","volume":"12","author":"Lukashevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.3390\/v4091802","article-title":"Animal models, prophylaxis, and therapeutics for arenavirus infections","volume":"4","author":"Vela","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2013.01.001","article-title":"Animal models for highly pathogenic emerging viruses","volume":"3","author":"Safronetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.37.2.771-778.1982","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"37","author":"Jahrling","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"5","article-title":"Experimental studies of arenaviral hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"134","author":"Peters","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6482","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02876-06","article-title":"Lassa virus infection in experimentally infected marmosets: Liver pathology and immunophenotypic alterations in target tissues","volume":"81","author":"Carrion","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/002048-0","article-title":"Cytokine patterns in a comparative model of arenavirus haemorrhagic fever in guinea pigs","volume":"89","author":"Scott","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E65","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.05051.x","article-title":"Molecular determinants of Pichinde virus infection of guinea pigs\u2014A small animal model system for arenaviral hemorrhagic fevers","volume":"1171","author":"Liang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/141.5.580","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of rhesus monkeys: Pathogenesis and treatment with ribavirin","volume":"141","author":"Jahrling","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1985.34.999","article-title":"Kinetic study of platelets and fibrinogen in Lassa virus-infected monkeys and early pathologic events in Mopeia virus-infected monkeys","volume":"34","author":"Lange","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1982.31.1038","article-title":"Pathology of Lassa virus infection in the rhesus monkey","volume":"31","author":"Callis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.465","article-title":"Physiological and immunologic disturbances associated with shock in a primate model of Lassa fever","volume":"155","author":"Mitchell","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-205","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa fever in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"8","author":"Hensley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit004","article-title":"A recently isolated Lassa virus from Mali demonstrates atypical clinical disease manifestations and decreased virulence in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"207","author":"Safronetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02246-14","article-title":"Delayed inflammatory and cell death responses are associated with reduced pathogenicity in Lujo virus-infected cynomolgus macaques","volume":"89","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5890","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01948-08","article-title":"Early and strong immune responses are associated with control of viral replication and recovery in Lassa virus-infected cynomolgus monkeys","volume":"83","author":"Baize","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/4\/2\/283\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:46:40Z","timestamp":1760215600000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/4\/2\/283"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,21]]},"references-count":154,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens4020283"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens4020283","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,21]]}}}