{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T06:31:23Z","timestamp":1790317883374,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,16]],"date-time":"2019-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Zoonoses present a major public health threat and are estimated to account for a substantial part of the infectious disease burden in low-income countries. The severity of zoonotic diseases is compounded by factors such as poverty, living in close contact with livestock and wildlife, immunosuppression as well as coinfection with other diseases. The interconnections between humans, animals and the environment are essential to understand the spread and subsequent containment of zoonoses. We searched three scientific databases for articles relevant to the epidemiology of bacterial zoonoses\/zoonotic bacterial pathogens, including disease prevalence and control measures in humans and multiple animal species, in various African countries within the period from 2008 to 2018. The review identified 1966 articles, of which 58 studies in 29 countries met the quality criteria for data extraction. The prevalence of brucellosis, leptospirosis, Q fever ranged from 0\u201340%, 1.1\u201324% and 0.9\u201328.2%, respectively, depending on geographical location and even higher in suspected outbreak cases. Risk factors for human zoonotic infection included exposure to livestock and animal slaughters. Dietary factors linked with seropositivity were found to include consumption of raw milk and locally fermented milk products. It was found that zoonoses such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, Q fever and rickettsiosis among others are frequently under\/misdiagnosed in febrile patients seeking treatment at healthcare centres, leading to overdiagnoses of more familiar febrile conditions such as malaria and typhoid fever. The interactions at the human\u2013animal interface contribute substantially to zoonotic infections. Seroprevalence of the various zoonoses varies by geographic location and species. There is a need to build laboratory capacity and effective surveillance processes for timely and effective detection and control of zoonoses in Africa. A multifaceted \u2018One Health\u2019 approach to tackle zoonoses is critical in the fight against zoonotic diseases. The impacts of zoonoses include: (1) Humans are always in contact with animals including livestock and zoonoses are causing serious life-threatening infections in humans. Almost 75% of the recent major global disease outbreaks have a zoonotic origin. (2) Zoonoses are a global health challenge represented either by well-known or newly emerging zoonotic diseases. (3) Zoonoses are caused by all-known cellular (bacteria, fungi and parasites) and noncellular (viruses or prions) pathogens. (4) There are limited data on zoonotic diseases from Africa. The fact that human health and animal health are inextricably linked, global coordinated and well-established interdisciplinary research efforts are essential to successfully fight and reduce the health burden due to zoonoses. This critically requires integrated data from both humans and animals on zoonotic diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8020050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]],"date-time":"2019-04-17T03:02:01Z","timestamp":1555470121000},"page":"50","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["Systematic Review of Important Bacterial Zoonoses in Africa in the Last Decade in Light of the \u2018One Health\u2019 Concept"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Asante","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology and Microbiology Research Group, School of Health Sciences, College of health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayman","family":"Noreddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Anti-Infective Therapy Research Group, Sharjah Medical Research Institute and College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1056-4761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"El Zowalaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Anti-Infective Therapy Research Group, Sharjah Medical Research Institute and College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2017.2158","article-title":"Prevalence of selected zoonotic diseases and risk factors at a human-wildlife-livestock interface in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa","volume":"18","author":"Simpson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06536","article-title":"Global trends in emerging infectious diseases","volume":"451","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-012-0209-y","article-title":"The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an ecohealth approach to their assessment","volume":"44","author":"Grace","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Grace, D., Mutua, F., Ochungo, P., Kruska, R., Jones, K., Brierley, L., Lapar, M., Said, M., Herrero, M., and Phuc, P. (2012). Mapping of Poverty and Likely Zoonoses Hotspots, ILRI."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160166","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0166","article-title":"Poor livestock keepers: Ecosystem\u2013poverty\u2013health interactions","volume":"372","author":"Grace","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"WHO (2015). Who Estimates of the Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases: Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group 2007\u20132015, WHO."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00e8vre, E.M., Glanville, W.A., Thomas, L.F., Cook, E.A., Kariuki, S., and Wamae, C.N. (2017). An integrated study of human and animal infectious disease in the Lake Victoria crescent small-holder crop-livestock production system, Kenya. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2559-6"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munyua, P., Bitek, A., Osoro, E., Pieracci, E.G., Muema, J., Mwatondo, A., Kungu, M., Nanyingi, M., Gharpure, R., and Njenga, K. (2016). Prioritization of zoonotic diseases in Kenya, 2015. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161576"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018, April 09). Bioterrorism Agents\/Diseases. Emergency Preparedness and Response, Available online: https:\/\/emergency.cdc.gov\/agent\/agentlist-category.asp."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2018","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881400212X","article-title":"Systematic review of surveillance systems and methods for early detection of exotic, new and re-emerging diseases in animal populations","volume":"143","author":"Melero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zumla, A., Dar, O., Kock, R., Muturi, M., Ntoumi, F., Kaleebu, P., Eusebio, M., Mfinanga, S., Bates, M., and Mwaba, P. (2016). Taking Forward a \u2018One Health\u2019approach for Turning the Tide Against the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and Other Zoonotic Pathogens with Epidemic Potential, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2016.06.012"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2479","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S175967","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Livestock-associated, antimicrobial, and heavy metal resistance","volume":"11","author":"Dweba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)00473-0","article-title":"Understanding the mechanisms and drivers of antimicrobial resistance","volume":"387","author":"Holmes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(13)70318-9","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance\u2014The need for global solutions","volume":"13","author":"Laxminarayan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vanderburg, S., Rubach, M.P., Halliday, J.E., Cleaveland, S., Reddy, E.A., and Crump, J.A. (2014). Epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii infection in Africa: A one health systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002787"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160168","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0168","article-title":"One Health contributions towards more effective and equitable approaches to health in low-and middle-income countries","volume":"372","author":"Cleaveland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"United Nations Statistics Division (2010). Composition of Macro Geographical (Continental) Regions, Geographical Sub-Regions, and Selected Economic and Other Groupings, United Nations Statistics Division."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"IBM Corp (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, 2017). Released 2017, IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2008). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2160","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2212.160285","article-title":"Human brucellosis in febrile patients seeking treatment at remote hospitals, Northeastern Kenya, 2014\u20132015","volume":"22","author":"Njeru","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.12-0327","article-title":"Brucellosis among hospitalized febrile patients in Northern Tanzania","volume":"87","author":"Bouley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chipwaza, B., Mhamphi, G.G., Ngatunga, S.D., Selemani, M., Amuri, M., Mugasa, J.P., and Gwakisa, P.S. (2015). Prevalence of bacterial febrile illnesses in children in Kilosa District, Tanzania. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003750"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Njeru, J., Henning, K., Pletz, M., Heller, R., Forstner, C., Kariuki, S., F\u00e8vre, E., and Neubauer, H. (2016). Febrile patients admitted to remote hospitals in northeastern Kenya: Seroprevalence, risk factors and a clinical prediction tool for Q-fever. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1569-0"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.05.029","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii-positive PCR in febrile patients in rural and urban Africa","volume":"28","author":"Angelakis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir411","article-title":"Q fever, spotted fever group, and typhus group rickettsioses among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania","volume":"53","author":"Prabhu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2017.08.018","article-title":"Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis among febrile patients in a rapidly growing sub-urban slum and a flood-vulnerable rural district in Mozambique, 2012\u20132014: Implications for the management of fever","volume":"64","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0176","article-title":"Leptospirosis among hospitalized febrile patients in Northern Tanzania","volume":"85","author":"Biggs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0102-2015","article-title":"Leptospirosis in animals and human contacts in Egypt: Broad range surveillance","volume":"48","author":"Samir","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2309.170789","article-title":"Patterns of human plague in Uganda, 2008\u20132016","volume":"23","author":"Forrester","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2017.05.015","article-title":"Serological evidence of Francisella tularensis in febrile patients seeking treatment at remote hospitals, northeastern Kenya, 2014\u20132015","volume":"19","author":"Njeru","year":"2017","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.09.019","article-title":"Molecular typing of isolates obtained from aborted foetuses in Brucella-free Holstein dairy cattle herd after immunisation with Brucella abortus RB51 vaccine in Egypt","volume":"164","author":"Wareth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-53-24","article-title":"Cattle brucellosis in traditional livestock husbandry practice in southern and eastern Ethiopia, and its zoonotic implication","volume":"53","author":"Megersa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.4847","article-title":"Detection of Brucella melitensis in bovine milk and milk products from apparently healthy animals in Egypt by real-time PCR","volume":"8","author":"Wareth","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-016-1067-9","article-title":"Serological and molecular investigation for brucellosis in swine in selected districts of Uganda","volume":"48","author":"Erume","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wareth, G., Melzer, F., Tomaso, H., Roesler, U., and Neubauer, H. (2015). Detection of Brucella abortus DNA in aborted goats and sheep in Egypt by real-time PCR. BMC Res. Notes, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-015-1173-1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v14i4.3","article-title":"Brucella sero-prevalence and modifiable risk factors among predisposed cattle keepers and consumers of un-pasteurized milk in Mbarara and Kampala Districts, Uganda","volume":"14","author":"Nasinyama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-014-0625-2","article-title":"Seroprevalence investigation of bovine brucellosis in Macenta and Yomou, Guinea","volume":"46","author":"Sylla","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0113","article-title":"Strong association between human and animal Brucella seropositivity in a linked study in Kenya, 2012\u20132013","volume":"93","author":"Osoro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.02.012","article-title":"Epidemiology of brucellosis, Q fever and Rift Valley fever at the human and livestock interface in northern C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"165","author":"Gragnon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2017.05.013","article-title":"Are brucellosis, Q fever and melioidosis potential causes of febrile illness in Madagascar?","volume":"172","author":"Boone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dean, A.S., Bonfoh, B., Kulo, A.E., Boukaya, G.A., Amidou, M., Hattendorf, J., Pilo, P., and Schelling, E. (2013). Epidemiology of brucellosis and Q fever in linked human and animal populations in northern Togo. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071501"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v81i1.594","article-title":"Risk, knowledge and preventive measures of smallholder dairy farmers in northern Malawi with regard to zoonotic brucellosis and bovine tuberculosis","volume":"81","author":"Tebug","year":"2014","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1810.111898","article-title":"Pathogenic Leptospira spp. in bats, Madagascar and Union of the Comoros","volume":"18","author":"Lagadec","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.12777","article-title":"Diversification of an emerging pathogen in a biodiversity hotspot: L. eptospira in endemic small mammals of Madagascar","volume":"23","author":"Dietrich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12052","article-title":"Leptospira interrogans at the human\u2013wildlife interface in northern Botswana: A newly identified public health threat","volume":"61","author":"Jobbins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dobigny, G., Garba, M., Tatard, C., Loiseau, A., Galan, M., Kadaour\u00e9, I., Rossi, J.-P., Picardeau, M., and Bertherat, E. (2015). Urban market gardening and rodent-borne pathogenic Leptospira in arid zones: A case study in Niamey, Niger. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004097"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allan, K.J., Halliday, J.E., Moseley, M., Carter, R.W., Ahmed, A., Goris, M.G., Hartskeerl, R.A., Keyyu, J., Kibona, T., and Maro, V.P. (2018). Assessment of animal hosts of pathogenic Leptospira in northern Tanzania. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006444"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.11.011","article-title":"The burden of Coxiella burnetii among aborted dairy animals in Egypt and its public health implications","volume":"166","author":"Hamza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2016.05.002","article-title":"Serological and molecular evidence of Q fever among small ruminant flocks in Algeria","volume":"47","author":"Khaled","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abushahba, M.F., Abdelbaset, A.E., Rawy, M.S., and Ahmed, S.O. (2017). Cross-sectional study for determining the prevalence of Q fever in small ruminants and humans at El Minya Governorate, Egypt. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2868-2"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12827","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) prevalence in associated populations of humans and small ruminants in the Gambia","volume":"22","author":"Bok","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wardrop, N.A., Thomas, L.F., Cook, E.A., de Glanville, W.A., Atkinson, P.M., Wamae, C.N., and F\u00e8vre, E.M. (2016). The sero-epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii in humans and cattle, western Kenya: Evidence from a cross-sectional study. Plos Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005032"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v88i0.1390","article-title":"Occurrence of Coxiella burnetii, Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia species and Anaplasma phagocytophilum-like bacterium in ticks collected from dogs and cats in South Africa","volume":"88","author":"Mtshali","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2017.10.004","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii and Rickettsia conorii: Two zoonotic pathogens in peridomestic rodents and their ectoparasites in Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Kamani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-012-0241-y","article-title":"Bovine tuberculosis in South Darfur State, Sudan: An abattoir study based on microscopy and molecular detection methods","volume":"45","author":"Gameel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sa\u2019idu, A., Okolocha, E., Dzikwi, A., Kwaga, J., Gamawa, A., Usman, A., Maigari, S., and Ibrahim, S. (2015). Detection of Mycobacterium bovis in organs of slaughtered cattle by DNA-based polymerase chain reaction and Ziehl-Neelsen techniques in Bauchi State, Nigeria. J. Vet. Med., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/921868"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okeke, L.A., Fawole, O., Muhammad, M., Okeke, I.O., Nguku, P., Wasswa, P., Dairo, D., and Cadmus, S. (2016). Bovine tuberculosis: A retrospective study at Jos abattoir, Plateau State, Nigeria. Pan Afr. Med J., 25.","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2016.25.202.5669"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okeke, L.A., Cadmus, S., Okeke, I.O., Muhammad, M., Awoloh, O., Dairo, D., Waziri, E.N., Olayinka, A., Nguku, P.M., and Fawole, O. (2014). Prevalence and risk factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in slaughtered cattle at Jos South abattoir, Plateau State, Nigeria. Pan Afr. Med. J., 18.","DOI":"10.11604\/pamjs.supp.2014.18.1.3841"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2014.08.001","article-title":"Spotted fever group Rickettsiae in Ixodid ticks in Oromia, Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Kumsa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2016.03.016","article-title":"Molecular detection of spotted fever group rickettsiae in Amblyomma variegatum ticks from Benin","volume":"7","author":"Moumouni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1607.100070","article-title":"Rickettsia felis\u2014Associated uneruptive fever, Senegal","volume":"16","author":"Socolovschi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2016.09.002","article-title":"Novel rickettsia and emergent tick-borne pathogens: A molecular survey of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kenya","volume":"8","author":"Mwamuye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-014-0490-x","article-title":"Detection and characterization of zoonotic pathogens of free-ranging non-human primates from Zambia","volume":"7","author":"Nakayima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2017.10.010","article-title":"Molecular detection and characterization of zoonotic Anaplasma species in domestic dogs in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"9","author":"Vlahakis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2017.01.023","article-title":"Anaplasma platys-like strains in ruminants from Tunisia","volume":"49","author":"Said","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-014-0514-6","article-title":"Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in captive wild felids, Zimbabwe","volume":"7","author":"Kelly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2013.1541","article-title":"Bartonella species in bats (Chiroptera) and bat flies (Nycteribiidae) from Nigeria, West Africa","volume":"14","author":"Kamani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182011002113","article-title":"Bartonella species in bat flies (Diptera: Nycteribiidae) from Western Africa","volume":"139","author":"Billeter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2014.09.005","article-title":"Lyme borreliosis: A neglected zoonosis in Egypt","volume":"140","author":"Elhelw","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwan, T.G., Anderson, J.M., Lopez, J.E., Fischer, R.J., Raffel, S.J., McCoy, B.N., Safronetz, D., Sogoba, N., Ma\u00efga, O., and Traor\u00e9, S.F. (2012). Endemic foci of the tick-borne relapsing fever spirochete Borrelia crocidurae in Mali, West Africa, and the potential for human infection. Plos Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001924"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1258\/td.2012.110454","article-title":"Human\u2013animal anthrax outbreak in the Luangwa Valley of Zambia in 2011","volume":"42","author":"Mwansa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Doct."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.446","article-title":"Serotypes and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella isolates from pigs at slaughter in Kenya","volume":"4","author":"Ombui","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eguale, T., Engidawork, E., Gebreyes, W.A., Asrat, D., Alemayehu, H., Medhin, G., Johnson, R.P., and Gunn, J.S. (2016). Fecal prevalence, serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonellae in dairy cattle in central Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-016-0638-2"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiflu, B., Alemayehu, H., Abdurahaman, M., Negash, Y., and Eguale, T. (2017). Salmonella serotypes and their antimicrobial susceptibility in apparently healthy dogs in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-1055-y"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2015.2097","article-title":"Characterization of virulence-associated genes, antimicrobial resistance genes, and class 1 integrons in Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium isolates from chicken meat and humans in Egypt","volume":"13","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12185","article-title":"Prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and risk factors for thermophilic Campylobacter infections in symptomatic and asymptomatic humans in Tanzania","volume":"62","author":"Komba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Vries, S.P., Vurayai, M., Holmes, M., Gupta, S., Bateman, M., Goldfarb, D., Maskell, D.J., Matsheka, M.I., and Grant, A.J. (2018). Phylogenetic analyses and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Campylobacter spp. from diarrhoeal patients and chickens in Botswana. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194481"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Grace, D., Mutua, F., Ochungo, P., Kruska, R.L., Jones, K., Brierley, L., Lapar, M., Said, M.Y., Herrero, M.T., and Phuc, P.M. (2019, April 11). Mapping of poverty and likely zoonoses hotspots. Project 4. Report to the UK Department for International Development. Available online: http:\/\/cgspace.cgiar.org\/handle\/10568\/21161."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e379","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70255-4","article-title":"Veterinary medicine\u2019s increasing role in global health","volume":"2","author":"Kelly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3257","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003257","article-title":"The global one health paradigm: Challenges and opportunities for tackling infectious diseases at the human, animal, and environment interface in low-resource settings","volume":"8","author":"Gebreyes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plos Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S65","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2313.170544","article-title":"Zoonotic disease programs for enhancing global health security","volume":"23","author":"Belay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160167","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0167","article-title":"One Health, emerging infectious diseases and wildlife: Two decades of progress?","volume":"372","author":"Cunningham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"World Bank (2012). People, Pathogens and Our Planet. Volume 2, The Economics of One Health. World Bank Report (#69145-GLB), World Bank. Available online: http:\/\/documents.worldbank.org\/curated\/en\/612341468147856529\/People-pathogens-and-our-planet-the-economics-of-one-health."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70312-1","article-title":"Towards a conceptual framework to support one-health research for policy on emerging zoonoses","volume":"11","author":"Coker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-4-106","article-title":"Zoonoses and marginalised infectious diseases of poverty: Where do we stand?","volume":"4","author":"Molyneux","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.4872","article-title":"Animal brucellosis in Egypt","volume":"8","author":"Wareth","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"577","article-title":"Laboratory-based diagnosis of brucellosis\u2014A review of the literature. Part II: Serological tests for brucellosis","volume":"49","author":"Al","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Lab."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0030","article-title":"Challenges of establishing the correct diagnosis of outbreaks of acute febrile illnesses in Africa: The case of a likely Brucella outbreak among nomadic pastoralists, Northeast Kenya, March\u2013July 2005","volume":"85","author":"Ari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70072-4","article-title":"Community-acquired bloodstream infections in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Reddy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"John, K., Fitzpatrick, J., French, N., Kazwala, R., Kambarage, D., Mfinanga, G.S., MacMillan, A., and Cleaveland, S. (2010). Quantifying risk factors for human brucellosis in rural northern Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009968"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2008.01175.x","article-title":"Human brucellosis: Seroprevalence and risk factors related to high risk occupational groups in Tanga Municipality, Tanzania","volume":"56","author":"Swai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Siadat, S.D., Salmani, A.S., and Aghasadeghi, M.R. (2012). Brucellosis vaccines: An overview. Zoonosis, Intech."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"65","article-title":"Seroepidemiological investigation of bovine brucellosis in the extensive cattle production system of Tigray region of Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Berhe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Res. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0613-7","article-title":"Frequency and correlates of malaria over-treatment in areas of differing malaria transmission: A cross-sectional study in rural western Kenya","volume":"14","author":"Onchiri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2012.04.006","article-title":"Chronic Q fever: Expert opinion versus literature analysis and consensus","volume":"65","author":"Raoult","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0252","article-title":"The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is an unreliable predictor of infecting Leptospira serovar in Thailand","volume":"81","author":"Smythe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl-2018-0090","article-title":"Arboviruses in South Africa, known and unknown","volume":"13","author":"Mensah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2014.00144","article-title":"The important bacterial zoonoses in \u201cone health\u201d concept","volume":"2","author":"Cantas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2010.01.007","article-title":"The increasing recognition of rickettsial pathogens in dogs and people","volume":"26","author":"Nicholson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). Update: Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and interim guidelines for exposure management and antimicrobial therapy, October 2001. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 50, 909."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"247","article-title":"Increasing antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from paediatric diarrhea cases in a tertiary care hospital of New Delhi, India","volume":"7","author":"Ghosh","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res. JCDR"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.20.3.1318","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Responsible and prudent use of antimicrobial agents in veterinary medicine","volume":"20","author":"Anthony","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Et Tech.-Off. Int. Des Epizoot."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2006.01054.x","article-title":"Heavy use of prophylactic antibiotics in aquaculture: A growing problem for human and animal health and for the environment","volume":"8","author":"Cabello","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg313","article-title":"The European ban on growth-promoting antibiotics and emerging consequences for human and animal health","volume":"52","author":"Casewell","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/8\/2\/50\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:45:57Z","timestamp":1760186757000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/8\/2\/50"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,16]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens8020050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens8020050","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,16]]}}}