{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T04:00:16Z","timestamp":1790740816470,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,23]],"date-time":"2019-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Science and Technology-Philippine Council for Industry, Energy and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD)","award":["PCIEERD-BIO-17-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PCIEERD-BIO-17-02"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The perpetuation of schistosomiasis japonica in the Philippines depends to a major extent on the persistence of its intermediate host Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi, an amphibious snail. While the malacological survey remains the method of choice in determining the contamination of the environment as evidenced by snails infected with schistosome larval stages, an emerging technology known as environmental DNA (eDNA) detection provides an alternative method. Previous reports showed that O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA could be detected in water, but no reports have been made on its detection in soil. Methods: This study, thus focused on the detection of O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA from soil samples collected from two selected schistosomiasis-endemic barangays in Gonzaga, Cagayan Valley using conventional and TaqMan-quantitative (qPCR) PCRs. Results: The results show that qPCR could better detect O. hupensis quadrasi eDNA in soil than the conventional method. In determining the possible distribution range of the snail, basic edaphic factors were measured and correlated with the presence of eDNA. The eDNA detection probability increases as the pH, phosphorous, zinc, copper, and potassium content increases, possibly indicating the conditions in the environment that favor the presence of the snails. A map was generated to show the probable extent of the distribution of the snails away from the body of the freshwater. Conclusion: The information generated from this study could be used to determine snail habitats that could be possible hotspots of transmission and should, therefore, be targeted for snail control or be fenced off from human and animal contact or from the contamination of feces by being a dumping site for domestic wastes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8040160","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,23]],"date-time":"2019-09-23T11:02:00Z","timestamp":1569236520000},"page":"160","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Analysis of Environmental DNA and Edaphic Factors for the Detection of the Snail Intermediate Host Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Fritz Ivy C.","family":"Calata","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camille Z.","family":"Caranguian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jillian Ela M.","family":"Mendoza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3969-2660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffy Jay C.","family":"Fornillos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines"},{"name":"Natural Sciences Research Institute, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian Kim B.","family":"Tabios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Pedro Gil St. Ermita, Manila 1000, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian Kendrich C.","family":"Fontanilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines"},{"name":"Natural Sciences Research Institute, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lydia R.","family":"Leonardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DNA Barcoding Laboratory, College of Science, National Science Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines"},{"name":"Graduate School, University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center, 64 Aurora Blvd., Quezon City 1100, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Louie S.","family":"Sunico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rural Health Unit, Municipal Health Office, Gonzaga, Cagayan Valley 3515, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoru","family":"Kawai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuichi","family":"Chigusa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihoko","family":"Kikuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megumi","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata University 2-746 Asahimachi-dori, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8518, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toshifumi","family":"Minamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, 3-11, Tsurukabuto, Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2793-923X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zenaida G.","family":"Baoanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Governor Pack Road, Baguio City 2600, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9204-0602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcello Otake","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)66457-4","article-title":"Reassessment of the cost of chronic helmintic infection: A meta-Analysis of disability-Related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis","volume":"365","author":"King","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(06)70521-7","article-title":"Schistosomiasis and water resources development: Systematic review, meta-Analysis, and estimates of people at risk","volume":"6","author":"Steinmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finkelstein, J.L., Schleinitz, M.D., Carabin, H., and McGarvey, S.T. (2008). Decision-Model estimation of the age-Specific disability weight for schistosomiasis japonica: A systematic review of the literature. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000158"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08140","article-title":"The Schistosoma japonicum genome reveals features of host-Parasite interplay","volume":"460","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)69440-3","article-title":"Human schistosomiasis","volume":"368","author":"Gryseels","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61949-2","article-title":"Human schistosomiasis","volume":"383","author":"Colley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2013.09.011","article-title":"Bilharzia in the Philippines: Past, present, and future","volume":"18","author":"Olveda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"651","article-title":"Schistosomiasis in the Philippines: Challenges and some successes in control","volume":"47","author":"Leonardo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"745","article-title":"Handbook for the control of Schistosomiasis japonica","volume":"72","author":"Blas","year":"1991","journal-title":"Monogr. Schist Jpn. Infect. Philipp."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.270-295.2001","article-title":"Schistosomiasis in the People \u2019 s Republic of China: Prospects and Challenges for the 21st Century","volume":"14","author":"Ross","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(01)00340-1","article-title":"Laboratory and field evaluation of Schistosoma japonicum DNA vaccines in sheep and water buffalo in China","volume":"20","author":"Shi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2004.01.003","article-title":"The schistosomiasis problem in the Philippines: A review","volume":"53","author":"Blas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.05.026427","article-title":"Cross-Sectional associations between intensity of animal and human infection with Schistosoma japonicum in Western Samar province, Philippines","volume":"84","author":"McGarvey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.07.013","article-title":"A review of parasitic zoonoses in a changing Southeast Asia","volume":"182","author":"Conlan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2005.07.017","article-title":"Transmission of Schistosoma japonicum by humans and domestic animals in the Yangtze River valley, Anhui province, China","volume":"96","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5769(03)00058-8","article-title":"Biological characteristics and control of intermediate snail host of Schistosoma japonicum","volume":"52","author":"Ohmae","year":"2003","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(97)00183-5","article-title":"From discovery to eradication of schistosomiasis in Japan: 1847\u20131996","volume":"27","author":"Tanaka","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5769(99)00004-5","article-title":"Schistosomiasis control in China","volume":"48","author":"Minggang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"32","article-title":"Genetic Comparison of Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi Genetic Comparison of Oncomelania hupensis quad rasi (M\u00f6llendorf, 1895) (Gastropoda: Pomatiopsidae), the Intermediate Host of Schistosoma japonicum in the Philippines, Based on 16S Ribosomal RNA Sequence","volume":"292","author":"Chua","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Diliman"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2013.03.015","article-title":"New endemic foci of schistosomiasis infections in the Philippines","volume":"141","author":"Leonardo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"481","article-title":"Studies on Schistosoma japonicum infection in the Philippines: 2. The molluscan host","volume":"18","author":"Pesigan","year":"1958","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1998.11813330","article-title":"Soil factors influencing the distribution of Oncomelania quadrasi, the intermediate host of Schistosoma japonicum, on Bohol Island, Philippines","volume":"92","author":"Nihei","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a119134","article-title":"The Control Of Schistosomiasis japonica: I. Observations on the habits, ecology and Life Cycle of Oncomelania quadrasi, The Molluscan Intermediate Host Of Schistosoma japonicum in the Philippine Islands","volume":"45","author":"Mcmullen","year":"1947","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"567","article-title":"The molluscan intermediate host and schistosomiasis japonica; observations on the production and rate of emergence of cercariae of Schistosoma japonicum from the molluscan intermediate host, Oncomelania quadrasi","volume":"28","author":"Pm","year":"1948","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"117","article-title":"Cagayan Valley: A newly described endemic focus for schistosomiasis japonicum in the Philippines","volume":"43","author":"Belizario","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philipp. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(02)00022-0","article-title":"Difficulties and strategies in the control of schistosomiasis in the Philippines","volume":"82","author":"Leonardo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"402","article-title":"Infection rate of Schistosoma japonicum in the snail Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi in endemic villages in the Philippines: Need for snail surveillance technique o Title","volume":"36","author":"Fornillos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182005007961","article-title":"Development of a novel PCR assay capable of detecting a single Schistosoma japonicum cercaria recovered from Oncomelania hupensis","volume":"131","author":"Driscoll","year":"2005","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hung, Y.W., and Remais, J. (2008). Quantitative detection of Schistosoma japonicum cercariae in water by real-Time PCR. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000337"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2018.08.018","article-title":"Usefulness of environmental DNA for detecting Schistosoma mansoni occurrence sites in Madagascar","volume":"76","author":"Sato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8931","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1815046116","article-title":"Environmental DNA for improved detection and environmental surveillance of schistosomiasis","volume":"116","author":"Sengupta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2019, July 31). Google Earth. Available online: https:\/\/earth.google.com\/web\/@18.27337328,122.10486135,232.93976988a,88309.32932935d,35y,0h,0t, 0r\/data=ChMaEQoJL20vMDZqX2hzGAIgASgC No Title."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.2144\/97223st01","article-title":"Effect of pH and ionic strength on the spectrophotometric assessment of nucleic acid purity","volume":"22","author":"Wilfinger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"2565","article-title":"NanoDrop microvolume quantitation of nucleic acids","volume":"45","author":"Desjardins","year":"2010","journal-title":"JoVE"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, J., Valentini, A., Dejean, T., Montarsi, F., Taberlet, P., Glaizot, O., and Fumagalli, L. (2016). Detection of invasive mosquito vectors using environmental DNA (eDNA) from water samples. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162493"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buxton, A.S., Groombridge, J.J., and Griffiths, R.A. (2018). Seasonal variation in environmental DNA detection in sediment and water samples. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0191737"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellison, S.L.R., English, C.A., Burns, M.J., and Keer, J.T. (2006). Routes to improving the reliability of low level DNA analysis using real-time PCR. BMC Biotechnol., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6750-6-33"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2014.04.003","article-title":"Environmental DNA for wildlife biology and biodiversity monitoring","volume":"29","author":"Bohmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Herder, J., Valentini, A., Bellemain, E., Dejean, T., Van Delft, J., Thomsen, P.F., and Taberlet, P. (2014). Environmental DNA- A Review of the Possible Applications for the Detection of (Invasive) Species, RAVON. Technical Report: Report number: 2013-104."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12306","article-title":"The detection of aquatic animal species using environmental DNA\u2014a review of eDNA as a survey tool in ecology","volume":"51","author":"Rees","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2014.11.019","article-title":"Environmental DNA\u2014An emerging tool in conservation for monitoring past and present biodiversity","volume":"183","author":"Thomsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12595","article-title":"Critical considerations for the application of environmental DNA methods to detect aquatic species","volume":"7","author":"Goldberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomsen, P.F., Kielgast, J., Iversen, L.L., M\u00f8ller, P.R., Rasmussen, M., and Willerslev, E. (2012). Detection of a diverse marine fish fauna using environmental DNA from seawater samples. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041732"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b05672","article-title":"Effects of temperature and trophic state on degradation of environmental DNA in lake water","volume":"50","author":"Eichmiller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15781","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707763104","article-title":"Aquatic eutrophication promotes pathogenic infection in amphibians","volume":"104","author":"Johnson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2010.12.043","article-title":"Land application of organic waste\u2014Effects on the soil ecosystem","volume":"88","author":"Odlare","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742170513000318","article-title":"The potassium paradox: Implications for soil fertility, crop production and human health","volume":"29","author":"Khan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Agric. Food Syst."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"125785","article-title":"Toxicity of metals to a freshwater snail, Melanoides tuberculata","volume":"2012","author":"Nadzifah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejar.2018.06.004","article-title":"Acute toxicity of some heavy metals to the fresh water snail, Theodoxus niloticus (Reeve, 1856)","volume":"44","author":"Gawad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Aquat. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forc.2017.03.005","article-title":"Understanding metal inhibition: The effect of copper (Cu2+) on DNA containing samples","volume":"4","author":"Moreno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1385\/BTER:103:3:229","article-title":"Copper increases the damage to DNA and proteins caused by reactive oxygen species","volume":"103","author":"Albores","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"617","article-title":"Use of molluscicides in the control of bilharziasis in Venezuela: Equipment and methods of application","volume":"14","author":"Jove","year":"1956","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(87)90362-2","article-title":"Field evaluation of controlled release copper glass as a molluscicide in snail control","volume":"81","author":"Chandiwana","year":"1987","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244-014-0020-z","article-title":"Ecotoxicological effect of sublethal exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles on freshwater snail Biomphalaria alexandrina","volume":"67","author":"Fahmy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.1078.40","article-title":"The Facile Preparation and the Performance of Killing Oncomelania Snails of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles","volume":"1078","author":"Ge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Bolyard, S. (2012). Fate of Zinc Oxide in Landfill Leachate. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Central Florida]."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2005.07.005","article-title":"The public health significance and control of schistosomiasis in China\u2014Then and now","volume":"96","author":"Zhou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.5194\/we-1-63-2000","article-title":"Calcium, snails, and birds: A case study","volume":"1","author":"Tilgar","year":"2000","journal-title":"Web Ecol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/8\/4\/160\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:23:20Z","timestamp":1760189000000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/8\/4\/160"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,23]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens8040160"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens8040160","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,23]]}}}