{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:11:32Z","timestamp":1790759492999,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,27]],"date-time":"2020-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007546","name":"Agence Nationale de S\u00e9curit\u00e9 Sanitaire de l\u2019Alimentation, de l\u2019Environnement et du Travail","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PREV-TBE-TIQRO"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PREV-TBE-TIQRO"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007546","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A greater knowledge of the ecology of the natural foci of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is essential to better assess the temporal variations of the risk of tick-borne encephalitis for humans. To describe the seasonal and inter-annual variations of the TBEV-cycle and the epidemiological parameters related to TBEV nymph-to-larva transmission, exposure of small mammals to TBEV, and tick aggregation on small mammals, a longitudinal survey in ticks and small mammals was conducted over a 3-year period in a mountain forest in Alsace, eastern France. TBEV prevalence in questing nymphs was lower in 2013 than in 2012 and 2014, probably because small mammals (Myodes glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis) were more abundant in 2012, which reduced tick aggregation and co-feeding transmission between ticks. The prevalence of TBEV in questing nymphs was higher in autumn than spring. Despite these variations in prevalence, the density of infected questing nymphs was constant over time, leading to a constant risk for humans. The seroprevalence of small mammals was also constant over time, although the proportion of rodents infested with ticks varied between years and seasons. Our results draw attention to the importance of considering the complex relationship between small mammal densities, tick aggregation on small mammals, density of infected questing nymphs, and prevalence of infected nymphs in order to forecast the risk of TBEV for humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9070518","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,29]],"date-time":"2020-06-29T05:28:56Z","timestamp":1593408536000},"page":"518","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus: Seasonal and Annual Variation of Epidemiological Parameters Related to Nymph-to-Larva Transmission and Exposure of Small Mammals"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Laure","family":"Bournez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-7474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerald","family":"Umhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8833-2717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Moinet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5632-7796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9line","family":"Richomme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Michel","family":"Demerson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christophe","family":"Caillot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elodie","family":"Devillers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte de Recherche Biologie Mol\u00e9culaire et Immunologie Parasitaire (UMR BIPAR), ANSES, INRAE, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Boucher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8903-0027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yves","family":"Hansmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Department, University Hospital Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0957-1320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Franck","family":"Bou\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3010-6968","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Moutailler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, The French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 54220 Malz\u00e9ville, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v3.i5.430","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis: A review of epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and management","volume":"3","author":"Bogovic","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2010.10.007","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis 2010: Epidemiology, risk areas, and virus strains in Europe and Asia\u2014An overview","volume":"2","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2011.00312.x","article-title":"Ecology of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Europe: Transmission dynamics in multi-host systems, influence of molecular processes and effects of climate change","volume":"36","author":"Mannelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2016.05.006","article-title":"Diapause in ticks of the medically important Ixodes ricinus species complex","volume":"7","author":"Gray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-41.3.361","article-title":"Influence of climate on the proportion of Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults questing in a tick population","volume":"41","author":"Perret","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"434","article-title":"Experimental infection of Clethrionomys glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis with tick-borne encephalitis virus","volume":"7","author":"Ernek","year":"1963","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.1966.66.4.489","article-title":"Experimental infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus in Clethrionomys glareolus, Apodemus flavicollis, Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus musculus. 1. Virological studies","volume":"66","author":"Heigl","year":"1966","journal-title":"Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"219","article-title":"Experimental characteristics of viraemia caused by two strains of tick-borne encephalitis virus in small rodents","volume":"25","author":"Kozuch","year":"1981","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"257","article-title":"Viraemia in Clethrionomys glareolus -a new ecological marker of tick-borne encephalitis virus","volume":"23","author":"Chunikhin","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michelitsch, A., Tews, B.A., Klaus, C., Bestehorn-Willmann, M., Dobler, G., Beer, M., and Wernike, K. (2019). In Vivo Characterization of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Bank Voles (Myodes glareolus). Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11111069"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2011.07.004","article-title":"Transmission of tick-borne pathogens between co-feeding ticks: Milan Labuda\u2019s enduring paradigm","volume":"2","author":"Randolph","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1086\/587530","article-title":"The basic reproduction number for complex disease systems: Defining R0 for tick-borne infections","volume":"171","author":"Hartemink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/S0934-8840(99)80005-X","article-title":"Survival strategy of tick-borne encephalitis virus: Cellular basis and environmental determinants","volume":"289","author":"Labuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Zentralblatt F\u00fcr Bakteriol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182099006083","article-title":"Seasonal synchrony: The key to tick-borne encephalitis foci identified by satellite data","volume":"121","author":"Randolph","year":"2000","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(98)01224-1","article-title":"Ticks are not Insects: Consequences of contrasting vector biology for transmission potential","volume":"14","author":"Randolph","year":"1998","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182012000893","article-title":"The importance of the aggregation of ticks on small mammal hosts for the establishment and persistence of tick-borne pathogens: An investigation using the R0 model","volume":"139","author":"Harrison","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.1.338","article-title":"Heterogeneities in the transmission of infectious agents: Implications for the design of control programs","volume":"94","author":"Woolhouse","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1603\/ME10180","article-title":"Microclimate and the zoonotic cycle of tick-borne encephalitis virus in Switzerland","volume":"48","author":"Burri","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(03)00128-0","article-title":"Empirical evidence for key hosts in persistence of a tick-borne disease","volume":"33","author":"Perkins","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182098003643","article-title":"Incidence from coincidence: Patterns of tick infestations on rodents facilitate transmission of tick-borne encephalitis virus","volume":"118","author":"Randolph","year":"1999","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2006.0607","article-title":"Temporal variation of Ixodes ricinus intensity on the rodent host Apodemus flavicollis in relation to local climate and host dynamics","volume":"7","author":"Pugliese","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4205","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.13885","article-title":"Ecological factors influencing small mammal infection by Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in agricultural and forest landscapes: Tick-borne infection in small mammals","volume":"19","author":"Perez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-010-2065-x","article-title":"Factors affecting patterns of tick parasitism on forest rodents in tick-borne encephalitis risk areas, Germany","volume":"108","author":"Kiffner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2019.05.006","article-title":"Changes in host densities and co-feeding pattern efficiently predict tick-borne encephalitis hazard in an endemic focus in northern Italy","volume":"49","author":"Tagliapietra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez-Eid, C., Hannoun, C., and Rodhain, F. (1992). The Alsatian tick-borne encephalitis focus: Presence of the virus among ticks and small mammals. Eur. J. Epidemiol., 8.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00144797"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-014-0969-0","article-title":"A 4-year study of a natural tick-borne encephalitis virus focus in Hungary, 2010\u20132013","volume":"12","author":"Papp","year":"2015","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0706.2002.980311.x","article-title":"Survival in fluctuating bank vole populations: Seasonal and yearly variations","volume":"98","author":"Crespin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.4098\/AT.arch.93-18","article-title":"Rodent population dynamics in a primeval deciduous forest (Bia\u0142owie\u017ca National Park) in relation to weather, seed crop, and predation","volume":"38","author":"Pucek","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Theriol. (Warsz.)"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03192479","article-title":"Population dynamics of Clethrionomys glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis: Seasonal components of density dependence and density independence","volume":"47","author":"Stenseth","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Theriol. (Warsz.)"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00378391","article-title":"Seed production and outbreaks of non-cyclic rodent populations in deciduous forests","volume":"54","author":"Jensen","year":"1982","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s10493-018-0267-6","article-title":"Forecasting next season\u2019s Ixodes ricinus nymphal density: The example of southern Germany 2018","volume":"75","author":"Brugger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Appl. Acarol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.2386","article-title":"Tick-borne disease risk in a forest food web","volume":"99","author":"Ostfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krawczyk, A.I., van Duijvendijk, G.L.A., Swart, A., Heylen, D., Jaarsma, R.I., Jacobs, F.H.H., Fonville, M., Sprong, H., and Takken, W. (2020). Effect of rodent density on tick and tick-borne pathogen populations: Consequences for infectious disease risk. Parasit. Vectors, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3902-0"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.1995.tb00887.x","article-title":"Clethrionomys glareolus, but not Apodemus flavicollis, acquires resistance to Ixodes ricinus, the main European vector of Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"17","author":"Dizij","year":"1995","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/32.6.807","article-title":"Infestation of rodents with larval Ixodes ricinus (Acari; Ixodidae) is an important factor in the transmission cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in German woodlands","volume":"32","author":"Kurtenbach","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2011.0763","article-title":"Seasonality of Ixodes ricinus ticks on vegetation and on rodents and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato genospecies diversity in two Lyme borreliosis\u2013endemic areas in Switzerland","volume":"12","author":"Rais","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1080\/00365540600585073","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis in eastern France","volume":"38","author":"Hansmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scand. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"34","article-title":"L\u2019enc\u00e9phalite \u00e0 tique en France: qu\u2019en savons-nous aujourd\u2019hui ?","volume":"2019","author":"Velay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Francoph. Lab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4241","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00391-10","article-title":"High-throughput procedure for tick surveys of tick-borne encephalitis virus and its application in a national surveillance study in Switzerland","volume":"76","author":"Gaumann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-443","article-title":"Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in field-collected ticks (Ixodes ricinus) in southern Switzerland","volume":"7","author":"Rieille","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2877","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.013367-0","article-title":"Prevalence and genetic variability of tick-borne encephalitis virus in host-seeking Ixodes ricinus in northern Italy","volume":"90","author":"Carpi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"100","article-title":"Experimentelle Infektion uniger heimischer S\u00e4ugerarten mit dem Fr\u00fchsommer-Meningo- Enzephalitis Virus","volume":"208","author":"Radda","year":"1968","journal-title":"Zbl Bakt Mikr Hyg Abt Orig A"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"474","article-title":"Study of persistence of antibody to tick-borne encephalitis virus in naturally occurring small rodents","volume":"36","author":"Nikitina","year":"1967","journal-title":"Med. Parazit."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0236","article-title":"Rodents as sentinels for the prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus","volume":"11","author":"Achazi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1997.8622","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis virus transmission between ticks cofeeding on specific immune natural rodent hosts","volume":"235","author":"Labuda","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2003.2485","article-title":"Immune function across generations: Integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission","volume":"270","author":"Grindstaff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2771","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3645","article-title":"Maternal antibodies postpone hantavirus infection and enhance individual breeding success","volume":"273","author":"Kallio","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomez-Chamorro, A., Heinrich, V., Sarr, A., Roethlisberger, O., Genn\u00e9, D., Bregnard, C., Jacquet, M., and Voordouw, M.J. (2019). Maternal antibodies provide bank voles with strain-specific protection against infection by the Lyme disease pathogen. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 85.","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01887-19"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2012.02.012","article-title":"Effects of deer density on tick infestation of rodents and the hazard of tick-borne encephalitis. I: Empirical assessment","volume":"42","author":"Cagnacci","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1603\/ME11084","article-title":"Serological evidence of tick-borne encephalitis virus infection in rodents captured at four sites in Switzerland","volume":"49","author":"Burri","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2011.0728","article-title":"Patterns of tick-borne encephalitis virus infection in rodents in Slovenia","volume":"12","author":"Knap","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1701.100051","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis virus in wild rodents in winter, Finland, 2008\u20132009","volume":"17","author":"Tonteri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2008.12.001","article-title":"Vertical transmission of tick-borne encephalitis virus between generations of adapted reservoir small rodents","volume":"140","author":"Bakhvalova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"61","article-title":"The role of small rodents and hedgehogs in a natural focus of tick-borne encephalitis","volume":"36","author":"Kozuch","year":"1967","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjx053","article-title":"Acquisition of Borrelia burgdorferi infection by larval Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) associated with engorgement measures","volume":"54","author":"Couret","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(96)10072-7","article-title":"Co-feeding ticks: Epidemiological significance for tick-borne pathogen transmission","volume":"12","author":"Randolph","year":"1996","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"131","article-title":"Les relations tiques\u2014petits mammif\u00e8res dans le foyer Alsacien d\u2019enc\u00e9phalite \u00e0 tiques","volume":"31","year":"1990","journal-title":"Acarologia"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2923","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03061-09","article-title":"Prevalence and seasonality of tick-borne pathogens in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks from Luxembourg","volume":"76","author":"Reye","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12125","article-title":"Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and co-infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Rickettsia spp. in Ixodes ricinus in Hamburg, Germany: Borrelia infections in ticks in northern Germany","volume":"29","author":"May","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01923553","article-title":"Non-viraemic transmission of tick-borne encephalitis virus: A mechanism for arbovirus survival in nature","volume":"49","author":"Labuda","year":"1993","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"218","article-title":"The effect of diapause of the tick Ixodes ricinus (Ixodidae) upon the multiplication of the tick encephalitis virus in them","volume":"13","author":"Mishaeva","year":"1979","journal-title":"Parazitologiya"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1996.0261","article-title":"Importance of localized skin infection in tick-borne encephalitis virus transmission","volume":"219","author":"Labuda","year":"1996","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.1966.68.2.211","article-title":"Experimental infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus in Clethrionomys glareolus, Apodemus flavicollis, Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus musculus. 2. Serological studies","volume":"68","author":"Zeipel","year":"1966","journal-title":"Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-Eid, C. (2007). Les tiques: Identification, biologie, importance m\u00e9dicale et v\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire., TEC & DOC Lavoisier."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Qu\u00e9r\u00e9, J.-P., and le Louarn, H. (2011). Les rongeurs de France: Faunistique et biologie, \u00c9ditions Qu\u00e6."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/678084","article-title":"A high-performance multiplex immunoassay for serodiagnosis of flavivirus-associated neurological diseases in horses","volume":"2015","author":"Beck","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S1386-6532(02)00168-3","article-title":"Development of a quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay with internal control for the laboratory detection of tick borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) RNA","volume":"27","author":"Schwaiger","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/0928-0197(95)00022-4","article-title":"Identification of tick-borne encephalitis virus ribonucleic acid in tick suspensions and in clinical specimens by a reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction assay","volume":"4","author":"Kunz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Virol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bestehorn, M., Weigold, S., Kern, W.V., Chitimia-Dobler, L., Mackenstedt, U., Dobler, G., and Borde, J.P. (2018). Phylogenetics of tick-borne encephalitis virus in endemic foci in the upper Rhine region in France and Germany. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204790"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(01)00184-2","article-title":"Sense and sensitivity\u2014Designing surveys based on an imperfect test","volume":"49","author":"Cannon","year":"2001","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"348","article-title":"The estimation of total fish populations of a lake","volume":"45","author":"Schnabel","year":"1938","journal-title":"Am. Math. Mon."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"James, G., Written, D., Hastie, T., and Tibshirani, R. (2017). An Introduction to Statistical Learning, Springer Science Business Media."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2018). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: http:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/9\/7\/518\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:43:45Z","timestamp":1760175825000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/9\/7\/518"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,27]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens9070518"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens9070518","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,27]]}}}