{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T05:52:48Z","timestamp":1781502768247,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,16]],"date-time":"2020-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This research was funded by University Grant Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh through Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), grant number UGC\/CVASU#06\u201d; the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Emerging Pandemic","award":["This research was funded by University Grant Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh through Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), grant number UGC\/CVASU#06\u201d; the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Emerging Pandemic"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["This research was funded by University Grant Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh through Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), grant number UGC\/CVASU#06\u201d; the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Emerging Pandemic"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ducks are a natural reservoir of influenza A viruses (IAVs) and can act as a reassortment vessel. Wetlands, such as Hakaluki and Tanguar haor in Bangladesh, have unique ecosystems including domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) rearing, especially household and free-range ducks. A cross-sectional study was, therefore, conducted to explore avian influenza status and its distribution and risk factors in the wetland areas. During the three consecutive winters of 2015\u20132017, specifically in December of these years, we collected a total of 947 samples including blood, oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from domestic ducks (such as free-range ducks (n = 312 samples) and household ducks (n = 635 samples) in wetlands. We screened serum samples using a nucleoprotein competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) to estimate seroprevalence of IAV antibodies and swab samples by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) to detect IA viral M gene. Eleven M gene positive samples were subjected to sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Serological and viral prevalence rates of IAVs were 63.8% (95% CI: 60.6\u201366.8) and 10.7% (8.8\u201312.8), respectively. Serological and viral RNA prevalence rates were 51.8% (95% CI: 47.2\u201356.4) and 10.2% (7.6\u201313.3) in Hakaluki haor, 75.6% (71.5\u201379.4) and 11.1% (8.5\u201314.3) in Tanguar haor, 66.3% (62.5\u201369.9) and 11.2% (8.8\u201313.9) in household ducks and 58.7% (52.9\u201364.2) and 9.6% (6.5\u201313.4) in free-range ducks, respectively. The risk factors identified for higher odds of AI seropositive ducks were location (OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 2.2\u20133.8, p &lt; 0.001; Tanguar haor vs. Hakaluki haor), duck-rearing system (OR = 1.4, 1.1\u20131.8, household vs. free-range), farmer\u2019s education status (OR = 1.5, 1.2\u20132.0, p &lt; 0.05 illiterate vs. literate) and contact type (OR = 3.0, 2.1\u20134.3, p &lt; 0.001; contact with chicken vs. no contact with chicken). The risk factors identified for higher odds of AI viral RNA positive ducks were farmer\u2019s education status (OR = 1.5, 1.0\u20132.3, p &lt; 0.05 for illiterate vs literate), contact type (OR = 2.7, 1.7\u20134.2, p &lt; 0.001; ducks having contact with chicken vs. ducks having contact with waterfowl). The phylogenetic analysis of 11 partial M gene sequences suggested that the M gene sequences detected in free-range duck were very similar to each other and were closely related to the M gene sequences of previously reported highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) subtypes in waterfowl in Bangladesh and Southeast Asian countries. Results of the current study will help provide significant information for future surveillance programs and model IAV infection to predict the spread of the viruses among migratory waterfowl, free-range ducks and domestic poultry in Bangladesh.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9110953","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,16]],"date-time":"2020-11-16T11:04:20Z","timestamp":1605524660000},"page":"953","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Prevalence and Distribution of Avian Influenza Viruses in Domestic Ducks at the Waterfowl-Chicken Interface in Wetlands"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6495-4637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad M.","family":"Hassan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9210-3351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ariful","family":"Islam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Deakin University, Geelong Campus, VIC 3216, Australia"},{"name":"EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9118-6423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rubyath B.","family":"Hasan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7761-9846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. K.","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh"},{"name":"EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard J.","family":"Webby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children\u2019s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Md. A.","family":"Hoque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1056-4761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed E.","family":"El Zowalaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children\u2019s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, UAE"},{"name":"Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-75 123 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-2659.2006.00004.x","article-title":"Avian influenza infections in birds\u2014A moving target","volume":"1","author":"Capua","year":"2007","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. 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