{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T09:57:52Z","timestamp":1775815072766,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,1]],"date-time":"2024-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706745600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathophysiology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For a long time, urine has been considered sterile in physiological conditions, thanks to the particular structure of the urinary tract and the production of uromodulin or Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein (THP) by it. More recently, thanks to the development and use of new technologies, i.e., next-generation sequencing and expanded urine culture, the identification of a microbial community in the urine, the so-called urobiota, became possible. Major phyla detected in the urine are represented by Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. Particularly, the female urobiota is largely represented by Lactobacillus spp., which are very active against urinary pathogenic Escherichia (E.) coli (UPEC) strains via the generation of lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Gut dysbiosis accounts for recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs), so-called gut\u2013bladder axis syndrome with the formation of intracellular bacterial communities in the course of acute cystitis. However, other chronic urinary tract infections are caused by bacterial strains of intestinal derivation. Monomicrobial and polymicrobial infections account for the outcome of acute and chronic UTIs, even including prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain. E. coli isolates have been shown to be more invasive and resistant to antibiotics. Probiotics, fecal microbial transplantation, phage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, and immune-mediated therapies, even including vaccines for the treatment of UTIs, will be described.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathophysiology31010005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,1]],"date-time":"2024-02-01T09:43:22Z","timestamp":1706780602000},"page":"52-67","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Bird\u2019s-Eye View of the Pathophysiologic Role of the Human Urobiota in Health and Disease: Can We Modulate It?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Emilio","family":"Jirillo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9401-7377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Palmirotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marica","family":"Colella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Doctoral School, eCampus University, 22060 Novedrate, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5671-8124","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Santacroce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari \u201cAldo Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2009.08.047","article-title":"The human superorganism\u2014Of microbes and men","volume":"74","author":"Sleator","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. 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