{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T15:31:10Z","timestamp":1779204670265,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]],"date-time":"2018-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1538092800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer and infectious diseases such as Ebola, HIV, tuberculosis, Zika, hepatitis, measles and human schistosomiasis are serious global health hazards. The increasing annual morbidities and mortalities of these diseases have been blamed on drug resistance and the inefficacy of available diagnostic tools, particularly those which are immunologically-based. Antibody-based tools rely solely on antibody production for diagnosis and for this reason they are the major cause of diagnostic delays. Unfortunately, the control of these diseases depends on early detection and administration of effective treatment therefore any diagnostic delay is a huge challenge to curbing these diseases. Hence, there is a need for alternative diagnostic tools, discovery and development of novel therapeutic agents. Studies have demonstrated that aptamers could potentially offer one of the best solutions to these problems. Aptamers are short sequences of either DNA or RNA molecules, which are identified in vitro through a SELEX process. They are sensitive and bind specifically to target molecules. Their promising features suggest they may serve as better diagnostic agents and can be used as drug carriers for therapeutic purposes. In this article, we review the applications of aptamers in the theranostics of cancer and some infectious diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph11040093","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]],"date-time":"2018-09-28T02:54:54Z","timestamp":1538103294000},"page":"93","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Molecular Application of Aptamers in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer and Communicable Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9425-7928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philisiwe Fortunate","family":"Molefe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Priscilla","family":"Masamba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2165-7936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babatunji Emmanuel","family":"Oyinloye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, PMB 5454, Ado-Ekiti 360001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Londiwe Simphiwe","family":"Mbatha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mervin","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DST\/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre, Biolabels Node, Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2521-8957","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abidemi Paul","family":"Kappo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2006.03.006","article-title":"Ebola virus: Unravelling pathogenesis to combat a deadly disease","volume":"12","author":"Hoenen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2010.08.024","article-title":"Liver disease in the HIV\u2013infected individual","volume":"8","author":"Price","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21332","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2016","volume":"66","author":"Siegel","year":"2016","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2008.07.009","article-title":"Innate immune response to viral infection","volume":"43","author":"Koyama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"747","article-title":"Flaviviruses","volume":"6","author":"Pierson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fields Virol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6403","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02389-10","article-title":"Evolution of drug-resistant viral populations during interruption of antiretroviral therapy","volume":"85","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"27","article-title":"RNA aptamers and their therapeutic and diagnostic applications","volume":"4","author":"Germer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.32607\/20758251-2013-5-4-34-43","article-title":"Aptamers: Problems, solutions and prospects","volume":"5","author":"Lakhin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Nat."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.11.006","article-title":"Analytical applications of aptamers","volume":"20","author":"Tombelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2015.02.008","article-title":"Current approaches in SELEX: An updates to aptamer selection technology","volume":"33","author":"Darmostuk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioeng.2007.06.001","article-title":"SELEX\u2014A (r) evolutionary method to generate high-affinity nucleic acid ligands","volume":"24","author":"Stoltenburg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731516","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/731516","article-title":"Aptamers: Novel molecules as diagnostic markers in bacterial and viral infections?","volume":"2013","author":"Zimbres","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morita, Y., Leslie, M., Kameyama, H., Volk, D.E., and Tanaka, T. (2018). Aptamer Therapeutics in Cancer: Current and Future. Cancers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers10030080"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2016.11.027","article-title":"G-quadruplex-based aptamers against protein targets in therapy and diagnostics","volume":"1861","author":"Platella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2016.08.011","article-title":"Aptamers as a promising approach for the control of parasitic diseases","volume":"20","author":"Marchat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11959","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules200711959","article-title":"A highlight of recent advances in aptamer technology and its application","volume":"20","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6866","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules20046866","article-title":"Predicting the uncertain future of aptamer-based diagnostics and therapeutics","volume":"20","author":"Bruno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-0352(99)00004-5","article-title":"Aptamers as therapeutic and diagnostic agents","volume":"74","author":"Brody","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rev. Mol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1038\/mtna.2012.59","article-title":"In vivo SELEX for Identification of Brain-penetrating Aptamers","volume":"2","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.3390\/ph6121507","article-title":"Aptamer-based therapeutics: New approaches to combat human viral diseases","volume":"6","author":"Shum","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1134\/S000629790713007X","article-title":"Methods for selection of aptamers to protein targets","volume":"72","author":"Kulbachinskiy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochem. Mosc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.4.571","article-title":"Rubella virus replication and links to teratogenicity","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.3390\/s120100612","article-title":"Aptamers and their biological applications","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2018.04.007","article-title":"Oligonucleotide aptamers: Promising and powerful diagnostic and therapeutic tools for infectious diseases","volume":"77","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2013.085","article-title":"Nucleic Acid aptamers: New methods for selection, stabilization, and application in biomedical science","volume":"21","author":"Kong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-017-0311-4","article-title":"Aptamer selection and applications for breast cancer diagnostics and therapy","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-006-0826-2","article-title":"Methods developed for SELEX","volume":"387","author":"Gopinath","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2013.12.031","article-title":"Optimization of SELEX: Comparison of different methods for monitoring the progress of in vitro selection of aptamers","volume":"91","author":"Mencin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szeto, K., Latulippe, D.R., Ozer, A., Pagano, J.M., White, B.S., Shalloway, D., Lis, J.T., and Craighead, H.G. (2013). Rapid-SELEX for RNA aptamers. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082667"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26934","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.25260","article-title":"Aptamers: Novelty tools for cancer biology","volume":"9","author":"Pereira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines3030248","article-title":"Aptamers and their significant role in cancer therapy and diagnosis","volume":"3","author":"Prakash","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cerchia, L. (2018). Aptamers: Promising Tools for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy. Cancers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers10050132"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"506","article-title":"Immunological methods for detection and identification of infectious disease and biological warfare agents","volume":"10","author":"Peruski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18460","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1315866110","article-title":"Quantitative selection and parallel characterization of aptamers","volume":"110","author":"Cho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1039\/C4CS00357H","article-title":"Nucleic acid aptamers in cancer research, diagnosis and therapy","volume":"44","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, B., Hu, Y., Duan, J., Ma, J., Xu, D., and Yang, X.D. (2014). Selection of a novel DNA aptamer for assay of intracellular interferon-gamma. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098214"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1955","article-title":"Pegaptanib, a targeted anti-VEGF aptamer for ocular vascular disease","volume":"5","author":"Ng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hori, S.I., Herrera, A., Rossi, J.J., and Zhou, J. (2018). Current advances in aptamers for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Cancers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers10010009"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni, S., Yao, H., Wang, L., Lu, J., Jiang, F., Lu, A., and Zhang, G. (2017). Chemical modifications of nucleic acid aptamers for therapeutic purposes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18081683"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2016.11.015","article-title":"RNA nanoparticles harboring annexin A2 aptamer can target ovarian cancer for tumor-specific doxorubicin delivery","volume":"13","author":"Pi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7447","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25720-1","article-title":"Improvement of the activity of the anti-HIV-1 integrase aptamer T30175 by introducing a modified thymidine into the loops","volume":"8","author":"Virgilio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.4236\/jct.2015.65043","article-title":"Pathogenesis of cancer: Cancer reparative trap","volume":"6","author":"Bukhtoyarov","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-9966-30-87","article-title":"Apoptosis in Cancer: From Pathogenesis to Treatment","volume":"30","author":"Wong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.200800084","article-title":"Collective behavior in cancer cell populations","volume":"31","author":"Deisboeck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioessays"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1111\/pcmr.12374","article-title":"Toward predicting metastatic progression of melanoma based on gene expression data","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2017, June 06). Available online: www.cancer.gov\/types\/metastatic-cancer."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2008.04.006","article-title":"Nanotechnology and aptamers: Applications in drug delivery","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.4155\/bio.10.46","article-title":"Aptamers selected by cell-SELEX for application in cancer studies","volume":"2","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, N.Y., Cheng, H.C., Ko, J.S., Cheng, Y.C., Lin, P.W., Lin, W.C., Chang, C.Y., and Liou, D.M. (2011). Magnetic resonance imaging for lung cancer detection: Experience in a population of more than 10,000 healthy individuals. BMC Cancer, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2407-11-242"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8739","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.8b03956","article-title":"Genetically Encoded Catalytic Hairpin Assembly for Sensitive RNA Imaging in Live Cells","volume":"140","author":"Mudiyanselage","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.10257","article-title":"Aptamers: Active targeting ligands for cancer diagnosis and therapy","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1349-7006.2011.01897.x","article-title":"RNA aptamer against a cancer stem cell marker epithelial cell adhesion molecule","volume":"102","author":"Shigdar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musumeci, D., Platella, C., Riccardi, C., Moccia, F., and Montesarchio, D. (2017). Fluorescence sensing using DNA aptamers in cancer research and clinical diagnostics. Cancers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers9120174"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-012-1218-y","article-title":"Chemotherapy as primary treatment for brain metastases from breast cancer: Analysis of 115 one-year survivors","volume":"138","author":"Boogerd","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(96)00496-7","article-title":"Combined hormono\/chemotherapy as primary treatment for metastatic prostate cancer: A randomized, multicenter study of orchiectomy alone versus orchiectomy plus estramustine phosphate","volume":"49","author":"Janknegt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2017, October 01). Available online: https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-cancer\/treatment."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gijs, M., Penner, G., Blackler, G.B., Impens, N.R., Baatout, S., Luxen, A., and Aerts, A.M. (2016). Improved aptamers for the diagnosis and potential treatment of her2-positive cancer. Pharmaceuticals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph9020029"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra043186","article-title":"Trastuzumab\u2014Mechanism of action and use in clinical practice","volume":"357","author":"Hudis","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2010.04.009","article-title":"The role of HER2 in cancer therapy and targeted drug delivery","volume":"146","author":"Tai","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31676","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.235184","article-title":"Structural insights into the down-regulation of overexpressed p185her2\/neu protein of transformed cells by the antibody chA21","volume":"286","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1586\/era.10.226","article-title":"HER2-amplified breast cancer: Mechanisms of trastuzumab resistance and novel targeted therapies","volume":"11","author":"Gajria","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-03-3856","article-title":"The HER-2-targeting antibodies trastuzumab and pertuzumab synergistically inhibit the survival of breast cancer cells","volume":"64","author":"Nahta","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61121-X","article-title":"Trastuzumab in combination with chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone for treatment of HER2-positive advanced gastric or gastro-oesophageal junction cancer (ToGA): A phase 3, open-label, randomised controlled trial","volume":"376","author":"Bang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdl475","article-title":"Trastuzumab: Mechanism of action, resistance and future perspectives in HER2-overexpressing breast cancer","volume":"18","author":"Valabrega","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Hoinka, J., Liang, Y., Adamus, T., Swiderski, P., and Przytycka, T.M. (2018). AptaBlocks: Designing RNA complexes and accelerating RNA-based drug delivery systems. Nucleic Acids Res.","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky577"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molonc.2015.03.012","article-title":"Mechanistic studies of anticancer aptamer AS1411 reveal a novel role for nucleolin in regulating Rac1 activation","volume":"9","author":"Salipur","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2016.12.015","article-title":"G-quadruplex oligonucleotide AS1411 as a cancer-targeting agent: Uses and mechanisms","volume":"1861","author":"Bates","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, Y., Lee, Y.B., Lee, J.H., Lee, D.H., Cho, E.J., Yu, S.J., Kim, Y.J., Kim, J.I., Im, J.H., and Lee, J.H. (2016). Modified AS1411 aptamer suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma by up-regulating galectin-14. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0160822"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2018.14379","article-title":"Highly Efficient Glioma Targeting of Tat Peptide-TTA1 Aptamer-Polyephylene Glycol-Modified Gelatin-Siloxane Nanoparticles","volume":"18","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.03.086","article-title":"Aptamer delivery of siRNA, radiopharmaceutics and chemotherapy agents in cancer","volume":"525","author":"Alves","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, L., Yang, L., Zhao, X., Zhang, L., Zhu, H., Liu, C., and Tan, W. (2012). Targeted delivery of chemotherapy agents using a liver cancer-specific aptamer. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033434"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2018.03.008","article-title":"The potential of aptamers for cancer research","volume":"549","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2016.85","article-title":"Specific delivery of miRNA for high efficient inhibition of prostate cancer by RNA nanotechnology","volume":"24","author":"Binzel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-017-0012-z","article-title":"Nanoparticle orientation to control RNA loading and ligand display on extracellular vesicles for cancer regression","volume":"13","author":"Pi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"467","article-title":"Targeted therapy using nanotechnology: Focus on cancer","volume":"9","author":"Sanna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128ra39","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3003651","article-title":"Preclinical development and clinical translation of a PSMA-targeted docetaxel nanoparticle with a differentiated pharmacological profile","volume":"4","author":"Hrkach","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9731","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b02471","article-title":"Systemic delivery of anti-miRNA for suppression of triple negative breast cancer utilizing RNA nanotechnology","volume":"9","author":"Shu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5165","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6165","article-title":"Suppression of the FOXM1 transcriptional programme via novel small molecule inhibition","volume":"5","author":"Gormally","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1158\/1535-7163.MCT-05-0302","article-title":"Targeting signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 with G-quartet oligonucleotides: A potential novel therapy for head and neck cancer","volume":"5","author":"Jing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-8722-6-90","article-title":"STAT inhibitors for cancer therapy","volume":"6","author":"Furqan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.09.56","article-title":"Ebolavirus glycoprotein structure and mechanism of entry","volume":"4","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.2217\/17460794.2.2.205","article-title":"Filovirus replication and transcription","volume":"2","year":"2007","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8406","DOI":"10.1021\/bi400704d","article-title":"Development of RNA aptamers targeting Ebola virus VP35","volume":"52","author":"Binning","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7945","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.14.7945-7956.2003","article-title":"The Ebola virus VP35 protein inhibits activation of interferon regulatory factor 3","volume":"77","author":"Basler","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5168","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02199-05","article-title":"Ebola virus VP35 protein binds double-stranded RNA and inhibits alpha\/beta interferon production induced by RIG-I signaling","volume":"80","author":"Loo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1765","article-title":"Structural basis for dsRNA recognition and interferon antagonism by Ebola VP35","volume":"17","author":"Leung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01006-06","article-title":"The VP35 protein of Ebola virus inhibits the antiviral effect mediated by double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR","volume":"81","author":"Feng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haasnoot, J., De Vries, W., Geutjes, E.J., Prins, M., De Haan, P., and Berkhout, B. (2007). The Ebola virus VP35 protein is a suppressor of RNA silencing. PLoS Pathog., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0030086"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7268","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00459-16","article-title":"Ebola virus does not induce stress granule formation during infection and sequesters stress granule proteins within viral inclusions","volume":"90","author":"Nelson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10442","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.16.10442-10450.2005","article-title":"Effects of Ebola virus glycoproteins on endothelial cell activation and barrier function","volume":"79","author":"Afanasieva","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, K.A., Sanderson, C.E., Marathe, M., Lewis, B.L., Rivers, C.M., Shaman, J., Drake, J.M., Lofgren, E., Dato, V.M., and Eisenberg, M.C. (2015). What factors might have led to the emergence of Ebola in West Africa?. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003652"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S2221-1691(15)30341-5","article-title":"Ebola viral disease: A review literature","volume":"5","author":"Moghadam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00003-16","article-title":"Diagnosis of Ebola virus disease: Past, present, and future","volume":"29","author":"Broadhurst","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.3390\/v7020751","article-title":"Aptamers in diagnostics and treatment of viral infections","volume":"7","author":"Wandtke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, V.M., Mart\u00edn, M.E., Fern\u00e1ndez, G., and Garc\u00eda-Sacrist\u00e1n, A. (2016). Use of aptamers as diagnostics tools and antiviral agents for human viruses. Pharmaceuticals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph9040078"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2012.10.007","article-title":"Factors associated with specific clinical forms of oral candidiasis in HIV-infected Brazilian adults","volume":"58","author":"Silva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)15022-2","article-title":"Treatment of antiretroviral-drug-resistant HIV-1 infection","volume":"362","author":"Deeks","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"(2017, June 10). Available online: www.who.int\/mediacentre\/factsheets\/fs104\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2004.00758.x","article-title":"Tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: A comprehensive review","volume":"10","author":"Aaron","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2011.00002","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and inflammation: What is beneficial for the host and for the bacterium?","volume":"2","author":"Sasindran","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2012.10.029","article-title":"Enhanced serodiagnostic utility of novel Mycobacterium tuberculosis polyproteins","volume":"66","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2017.03.004","article-title":"Selection, characterization, and application of DNA aptamers for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis secreted protein MPT64","volume":"104","author":"Sypabekova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tuberculosis"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)00095-5","article-title":"Detection and sequencing of Zika virus from amniotic fluid of fetuses with microcephaly in Brazil: A case study","volume":"16","author":"Calvet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faye, O., Freire, C.C., Iamarino, A., Faye, O., de Oliveira, J.V.C., Diallo, M., and Zanotto, P.M. (2014). Molecular evolution of Zika virus during its emergence in the 20th century. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002636"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2207.151990","article-title":"A literature review of Zika virus","volume":"22","author":"Plourde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"496","article-title":"Zika virus: The latest newcomer","volume":"7","author":"Saiz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1600297","article-title":"Zika virus in the Americas\u2014Yet another arbovirus threat","volume":"374","author":"Fauci","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtm.2017.03.020","article-title":"Advances in research on Zika virus","volume":"10","author":"Ali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, P.K. (2016). Monitoring intact viruses using aptamers. Biosensors, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios6030040"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17632","DOI":"10.5812\/hepatmon.17632","article-title":"Classical and modern approaches used for viral hepatitis diagnosis","volume":"14","author":"Heiat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepat. Mon."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2017, June 25). Available online: www.who.int\/features\/qa\/76\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-010-9034-5","article-title":"Trends and perspectives of biosensors for food and environmental virology","volume":"2","author":"Yadav","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"(2017, June 25). Available online: www.who.int\/hepatitis\/publications\/global-hepatitis-report2017\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adjei, C.A., Asamoah, R., Atibila, F., Ti-enkawol, G.N., and Ansah-Nyarko, M. (2016). Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B: Extent of knowledge of physicians and midwives in Eastern region of Ghana. BMC Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3215-6"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, H., Beck, J., Nassal, M., and Hu, K.H. (2011). A SELEX-screened aptamer of human hepatitis B virus RNA encapsidation signal suppresses viral replication. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027862"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7064","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00405-13","article-title":"Inhibition of hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication by specific RNA aptamers against HCV NS5B RNA replicase","volume":"87","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.4103\/1735-5362.202447","article-title":"Oligonucleotide aptamers: Potential novel molecules against viral hepatitis","volume":"12","author":"Mirian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20105","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1316681110","article-title":"Rubella virus capsid protein structure and its role in virus assembly and infection","volume":"110","author":"Prasad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1097\/GRF.0b013e31824df256","article-title":"Measles, mumps, and rubella","volume":"55","author":"White","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2014.10.021","article-title":"Pathogenesis of congenital rubella virus infection in human fetuses: Viral infection in the ciliary body could play an important role in cataractogenesis","volume":"2","author":"Abe","year":"2015","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.3.708-713.1997","article-title":"Prenatal diagnosis of rubella virus infection by direct detection and semiquantitation of viral RNA in clinical samples by reverse transcription-PCR","volume":"35","author":"Revello","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3268","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00803-06","article-title":"Development of a new method for diagnosis of rubella virus infection by reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification","volume":"44","author":"Mori","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24986","DOI":"10.1038\/srep24986","article-title":"Screening and identification of DNA aptamers toward Schistosoma japonicum eggs via SELEX","volume":"6","author":"Long","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"28","article-title":"Schistosomiasis: Health effects on women","volume":"3","author":"Nour","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-016-0116-y","article-title":"Nucleic acid detection in the diagnosis and prevention of schistosomiasis","volume":"5","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnci.2012.08.002","article-title":"Bladder cancer and schistosomiasis","volume":"24","author":"Zaghloul","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Egypt. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Soto, P., Arahuetes, J.G., Hern\u00e1ndez, A.S., Ab\u00e1n, J.L., Santiago, B.V., and Muro, A. (2014). A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for early detection of Schistosoma mansoni in stool samples: A diagnostic approach in a murine model. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003126"},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"263","article-title":"Pegaptanib in the treatment of wet, age-related macular degeneration","volume":"1","author":"Vinores","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1517\/14656566.6.8.1421","article-title":"Pegaptanib: The first antiangiogenic agent approved for neovascular macular degeneration","volume":"6","author":"Doggrell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2650","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.8b00526","article-title":"Optimized Assembly of a Multifunctional RNA-Protein Nanostructure in a Cell-Free Gene Expression System","volume":"18","author":"Dupin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b05737","article-title":"Advancement of the emerging field of RNA nanotechnology","volume":"11","author":"Jasinski","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"180","article-title":"Antiretroviral salvage therapy for multiclass drug-resistant HIV-1-infected patients: From clinical trials to daily clinical practice","volume":"13","author":"Imaz","year":"2011","journal-title":"AIDS Rev."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkp185","article-title":"Selection, characterization and application of new RNA HIV gp 120 aptamers for facile delivery of Dicer substrate siRNAs into HIV infected cells","volume":"37","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1261\/rna.7205405","article-title":"Structural characterization of an anti-gp120 RNA aptamer that neutralizes R5 strains of HIV-1","volume":"11","author":"Dey","year":"2005","journal-title":"RNA"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules16021271","article-title":"Oligomeric nucleic acids as antivirals","volume":"16","author":"Mescalchin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmedchemlett.5b00408","article-title":"Kinetic ESI-MS studies of potent anti-HIV aptamers based on the G-quadruplex forming sequence d (TGGGAG)","volume":"7","author":"Valeria","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17511","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules200917511","article-title":"G-quadruplex forming oligonucleotides as anti-HIV agents","volume":"20","author":"Domenica","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2836(02)01064-1","article-title":"DNA aptamers derived from HIV-1 RNase H inhibitors are strong anti-integrase agents","volume":"324","author":"Lozach","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2008.10.071","article-title":"Structure and function of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: Molecular mechanisms of polymerization and inhibition","volume":"385","author":"Sarafianos","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10388","DOI":"10.1021\/bi0507074","article-title":"Combinatorial selection, inhibition and antiviral activity of DNA thioaptamers targeting the RNase H domain of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase","volume":"44","author":"Somasunderam","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1756","article-title":"The guanine-quadruplex aptamer 93del inhibits HIV-1 replication ex vivo by interfering with viral entry, reverse transcription and integration","volume":"16","author":"Reigadas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"Mattia, M., Kovalenko, L., Lyonnais, S., Antaki, D., Torbett, B.E., Botta, M., Mirambeau, G., and M\u00e9ly, Y. (2015). Nucleocapsid protein: A desirable target for future therapies against HIV-1. The Future of HIV-1 Therapeutics, Springer."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.2002.6521","article-title":"Selection and stabilization of the RNA aptamers against the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 nucleocapsid protein","volume":"291","author":"Jin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H15","DOI":"10.1177\/135965350701203S03","article-title":"Major causes of antiviral drug resistance and implications for treatment of hepatitis B virus monoinfection and coinfection with HIV","volume":"12","author":"Locarnini","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-008-2979-y","article-title":"Aptamers against viral hepatitis: From rational design to practical application","volume":"23","author":"Feng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24262","article-title":"Treatment failure and resistance with direct-acting antiviral drugs against hepatitis C virus","volume":"53","author":"Pawlotsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Donovan, M.J. (2017, July 24). Veraptus Therapeutic Aptamers for the Treatment of Viral Infectious Diseases. Available online: http:\/\/veraptus.com\/assets\/veraptus-therapeutic-aptamers-for-the-treatment-of-viral-infectious-diseases.pdf."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coeli, R., Baba, E.H., Araujo, N., Coelho, P.M., and Oliveira, G. (2013). Praziquantel treatment decreases Schistosoma mansoni genetic diversity in experimental infections. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002596"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182013000231","article-title":"New approaches for understanding mechanisms of drug resistance in schistosomes","volume":"140","author":"Greenberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melman, S.D., Steinauer, M.L., Cunningham, C., Kubatko, L.S., Mwangi, I.N., Wynn, N.B., Mutuku, M.W., Karanja, D.M., Colley, D.G., and Black, C.L. (2009). Reduced susceptibility to praziquantel among naturally occurring Kenyan isolates of Schistosoma mansoni. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000504"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697923","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/697923","article-title":"Aptamers as both drugs and drug-carriers","volume":"2014","author":"Ashrafuzzaman","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6603","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-03-4041","article-title":"G-quartet oligonucleotides: A new class of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 inhibitors that suppresses growth of prostate and breast tumors through induction of apoptosis","volume":"64","author":"Jing","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2014.1908","article-title":"An aptamer targets HBV core protein and suppresses HBV replication in HepG2. 2.15 cells","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/11\/4\/93\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:22:55Z","timestamp":1760196175000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/11\/4\/93"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]]},"references-count":153,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ph11040093"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph11040093","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]]}}}