{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:42:02Z","timestamp":1791895322615,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":228,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,23]],"date-time":"2020-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1603411200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic botanical beverage originally used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in religious ceremonies and therapeutic practices. While ethnobotanical surveys still indicate its spiritual and medicinal uses, consumption of ayahuasca has been progressively related with a recreational purpose, particularly in Western societies. The ayahuasca aqueous concoction is typically prepared from the leaves of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Psychotria viridis, and the stem and bark of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of harmala alkaloids. Herein, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of the psychoactive DMT and harmala alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, are comprehensively covered, particularly emphasizing the psychological, physiological, and toxic effects deriving from their concomitant intake. Potential therapeutic utility, particularly in mental and psychiatric disorders, and forensic aspects of DMT and ayahuasca are also reviewed and discussed. Following administration of ayahuasca, DMT is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Harmala alkaloids act as potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), preventing extensive first-pass degradation of DMT into 3-indole-acetic acid (3-IAA), and enabling sufficient amounts of DMT to reach the brain. DMT has affinity for a variety of serotonergic and non-serotonergic receptors, though its psychotropic effects are mainly related with the activation of serotonin receptors type 2A (5-HT2A). Mildly to rarely severe psychedelic adverse effects are reported for ayahuasca or its alkaloids individually, but abuse does not lead to dependence or tolerance. For a long time, the evidence has pointed to potential psychotherapeutic benefits in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders; and although misuse of ayahuasca has been diverting attention away from such clinical potential, research onto its therapeutic effects has now strongly resurged.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph13110334","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,23]],"date-time":"2020-10-23T08:59:28Z","timestamp":1603443568000},"page":"334","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":101,"title":["Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics of Ayahuasca Alkaloids N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmine, Harmaline and Tetrahydroharmine: Clinical and Forensic Impact"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7327-1598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreia Machado","family":"Brito-da-Costa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7331-9157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Dias-da-Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8727-9678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nelson G. M.","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"},{"name":"LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7430-6297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo Jorge","family":"Dinis-Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7569-6802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1urea","family":"Madureira-Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"},{"name":"LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002","article-title":"Hallucinogens","volume":"101","author":"Nichols","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Strassman, R.J. (2001). DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor\u2019s Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences, Park Street Press."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Dinis-Oliveira, R.J., Carvalho, F.D., and Bastos, M.D.L. (2015). Alucinog\u00e9nios. Toxicologia Forense, PACTOR."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-015-1513-x","article-title":"The hallucinogenic world of tryptamines: An updated review","volume":"89","author":"Araujo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Rall, T.W., Nies, A.S., and Taylor, P. (1990). Drug addiction and drug abuse. Goodman and Gilman\u2019s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.115.011478","article-title":"Psychedelics","volume":"68","author":"Nichols","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1080\/03602532.2016.1278228","article-title":"Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: Clinical and forensic toxicological relevance","volume":"49","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Hardman, J.G., Limbird, L.E., Molinoff, P.B., Ruddon, R.W., and Gilman, A.G. (2018). Drug Use Disorders and Addiction. Goodman and Gilman\u2019s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(96)01297-5","article-title":"Age-specific patterns of hallucinogen use in the US population: An analysis using generalized additive models","volume":"43","author":"Chilcoat","year":"1996","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.2174\/1874467211666181010154139","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of peyote and mescaline: Clinical and forensic repercussions","volume":"12","author":"Pereira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2019.12.001","article-title":"Therapeutic use of serotoninergic hallucinogens: A review of the evidence and of the biological and psychological mechanisms","volume":"108","author":"Hallak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2004.03.002","article-title":"Clinical investigations of the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca: Rationale and regulatory challenges","volume":"102","author":"McKenna","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-8741(98)00168-8","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans","volume":"65","author":"Callaway","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"The identity of malpighiaceous narcotics of South America","volume":"18","author":"Schultes","year":"1957","journal-title":"Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harv. Univ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2012.03.024","article-title":"Metabolic pathways of the psychotropic-carboline alkaloids, harmaline and harmine, by liquid chromatography\/mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy","volume":"134","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-8741(84)90003-5","article-title":"Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: Tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca","volume":"10","author":"McKenna","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02157378","article-title":"Dimethyltryptamin: Its metabolism in man; the relation to its psychotic effect to the serotonin metabolism","volume":"12","author":"Szara","year":"1956","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hofmann, A. (1976). LSD\u2014My Problem Child, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2007.04.012","article-title":"Effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo Daime members","volume":"112","author":"Santos","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labate, B.C., and Cavnar, C. (2014). Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199341191.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S1570-0232(02)00397-5","article-title":"Determination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-carboline alkaloids in human plasma following oral administration of Ayahuasca","volume":"779","author":"Yritia","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X16666180125095902","article-title":"Ayahuasca: Psychological and physiologic effects, pharmacology and potential uses in addiction and mental illness","volume":"17","author":"Hamill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881113513852","article-title":"Dimethyltryptamine (DMT): Prevalence, user characteristics and abuse liability in a large global sample","volume":"28","author":"Winstock","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ott, J. (1993). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs Their Plant Sources and History, Natural Products Company."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"34","article-title":"Ethnotoxocological significance of additives to New World hallucinogens","volume":"18","author":"Schultes","year":"1972","journal-title":"Plant Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02860772","article-title":"Ayahuasca, the South American hallucinogenic drink: Ethnobotanical and chemical investigations","volume":"29","author":"Rivier","year":"1972","journal-title":"Econ. Bot."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.1551","article-title":"Methodology for and the determination of the major constituents and metabolites of the Amazonian botanical medicine ayahuasca in human urine","volume":"25","author":"McIlhenny","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomed. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/20.6.492","article-title":"Quantitation of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids in human plasma after oral dosing with ayahuasca","volume":"20","author":"Callaway","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2010.02.013","article-title":"Composition, standardization and chemical profiling of Banisteriopsis caapi, a plant for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders relevant to Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"128","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2004.03.003","article-title":"Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States","volume":"102","author":"Halpern","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Shulgin, A.T., and Shulgin, A. (1997). TIHKAL: The Continuation, Transform."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.422","article-title":"A critical review of reports of endogenous psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamines in humans: 1955\u20132010","volume":"4","author":"Barker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1038\/2061052a0","article-title":"Tryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, N,N-dimethyl-5-hydroxytryptamine and 5-methoxytryptamine in human blood and urine","volume":"206","author":"Franzen","year":"1965","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2944(77)90088-6","article-title":"The in vitro identification of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in mammalian brain and its characterization as a possible endogenous neuroregulatory agent","volume":"18","author":"Christian","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biochem. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2016.03.002","article-title":"Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential","volume":"126","author":"Soler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.1984.10472305","article-title":"Biochemistry and pharmacology of tryptamines and beta-carbolines. A minireview","volume":"16","author":"McKenna","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2006.01652.x","article-title":"Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids","volume":"102","author":"Gable","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simao, A.Y., Goncalves, J., Duarte, A.P., Barroso, M., Cristovao, A.C., and Gallardo, E. (2019). Toxicological aspects and determination of the main components of ayahuasca: A critical review. Medicines, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines6040106"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1177\/002076407101700402","article-title":"Ayahuasca\u2014The healing vine","volume":"17","year":"1971","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2011.566498","article-title":"Consumption of ayahuasca by children and pregnant women: Medical controversies and religious perspectives","volume":"43","author":"Labate","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2006.11.001","article-title":"The globalization of ayahuasca: Harm reduction or benefit maximization?","volume":"19","author":"Tupper","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Pelaez, A.I.E. (2020). Personality traits in former spanish substance users recovered with ayahuasca. J. Psychoact. Drugs, 1\u20139."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1383","article-title":"Health status of ayahuasca users","volume":"4","author":"Barbosa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/16066350701663672","article-title":"Buying ayahuasca and other entheogens online: A word of caution","volume":"16","author":"Dalgarno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Addict. Res. Theory"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2010.03.015","article-title":"Dimethyltryptamine (DMT): Subjective effects and patterns of use among Australian recreational users","volume":"111","author":"Cakic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaasik, H., and Kreegipuu, K. (2020). Ayahuasca users in estonia: Ceremonial practices, subjective long-term effects, mental health, and quality of life. J. Psychoact. Drugs, 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2020.1748773"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2008.10400630","article-title":"The \u201cvine of the soul\u201d vs. the controlled substances act: Implications of the hoasca case","volume":"40","author":"Bullis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research & Service (2020, July 30). Ayahuasca\u2019s Legal Status. Available online: https:\/\/www.iceers.org\/ayahuasca-legal-status\/."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2015.1013202","article-title":"Ritualistic use of ayahuasca versus street use of similar substances seized by the police: A key factor involved in the potential for intoxications and overdose?","volume":"47","author":"Lanaro","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1039\/c2np20068f","article-title":"Natural product \u2018legal highs\u2019","volume":"29","author":"Arunotayanun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/ajad.12833","article-title":"Ayahuasca: From the Amazon to a city near you","volume":"27","author":"Stiffler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2005.01.041","article-title":"Simultaneous determination of nineteen hallucinogenic tryptamines\/beta-calbolines and phenethylamines using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry","volume":"825","author":"Hayashi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Aixal\u00e0, M., and Bouso, J.C. (2018). Technical Report on Psychoactove Ethnobotanicals, International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research & Service."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.420070511","article-title":"Indolethylamine-N-methyltransferase in developing rabbit lung","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"1974","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00536","article-title":"N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an endogenous hallucinogen: Past, present, and future research to determine its role and function","volume":"12","author":"Barker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2344","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00101","article-title":"Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)","volume":"9","author":"Cameron","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/head.12601","article-title":"Triptans in the acute treatment of migraine: A systematic review and network meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Cameron","year":"2015","journal-title":"Headache"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Moffat, A.C., Osselton, M.D., Widdop, B., and Watts, J. (2011). Clarke\u2019s Analysis of Drugs and Poisons, Pharmaceutical Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"National Center for Biotechnology Information (2020, July 29). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 6089, N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Available online: https:\/\/pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/compound\/N_N-Dimethyltryptamine."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"National Center for Biotechnology Information (2020, July 29). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 3564, Harmaline, Available online: https:\/\/pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/compound\/Harmaline."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"National Center for Biotechnology Information (2020, July 29). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 159809, Tetrahydroharmine, Available online: https:\/\/pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/compound\/Tetrahydroharmine."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.1999.10471741","article-title":"Pharmahuasca: Human pharmacology of oral DMT plus harmine","volume":"31","author":"Ott","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurpsyc.1959.02340130141020","article-title":"Effect of some indolealkylamines on man","volume":"81","author":"Turner","year":"1959","journal-title":"AMA Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00200-6","article-title":"Differential tolerance to biological and subjective effects of four closely spaced doses of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans","volume":"39","author":"Strassman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1994.03950020009001","article-title":"Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. I. Neuroendocrine, autonomic, and cardiovascular effects","volume":"51","author":"Strassman","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1994.03950020022002","article-title":"Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. II. Subjective effects and preliminary results of a new rating scale","volume":"51","author":"Strassman","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00211","article-title":"A model for the application of target-controlled intravenous infusion for a prolonged immersive DMT psychedelic experience","volume":"7","author":"Gallimore","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1","article-title":"Estudio comparativo de la harmina, la dietilamida del \u00e1cido lis\u00e9rgico (LSD-25) y la mescalina","volume":"6","author":"Naranjo","year":"1959","journal-title":"Rev. Confed. M\u00e9dica Panam."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2019.111866","article-title":"Subchronic toxicity and concomitant toxicokinetics of long-term oral administration of total alkaloid extracts from seeds of Peganum harmala Linn: A 28-day study in rats","volume":"238","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00541","article-title":"Exposure characteristics of the analogous \u03b2-carboline alkaloids harmaline and harmine based on the efflux transporter of multidrug resistance protein 2","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881116652578","article-title":"The current state of research on ayahuasca: A systematic review of human studies assessing psychiatric symptoms, neuropsychological functioning, and neuroimaging","volume":"30","author":"Balthazar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0b013e31823607f6","article-title":"Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immunological effects of ayahuasca: A comparative study with d-amphetamine","volume":"31","author":"Valle","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.103.049882","article-title":"Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: Subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics","volume":"306","author":"Riba","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(87)90118-3","article-title":"In vivo metabolism of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine in the rat","volume":"36","author":"Sitaram","year":"1987","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(72)90119-0","article-title":"Determination and physiological disposition of dimethyltryptamine and diethyltryptamine in rat brain, liver and plasma","volume":"21","author":"Cohen","year":"1972","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00276707","article-title":"In vivo kinetics and displacement study of a carbon-11-labeled hallucinogen, N,N-[11C]dimethyltryptamine","volume":"12","author":"Yanai","year":"1986","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"925","article-title":"Accumulation of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in rat brain cortical slices","volume":"14","author":"Sangiah","year":"1979","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00421376","article-title":"Blood and urine levels of N,N-dimethyltryptamine following administration of psychoactive dosages to human subjects","volume":"38","author":"Kaplan","year":"1974","journal-title":"Psychopharmacologia"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(78)90070-9","article-title":"Behavioral effects and metabolic fate of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in mice pretreated with beta-diethylaminoethyl-diphenylpropylacetate (SKF 525-A), improniazid and chlorpromazine","volume":"8","author":"Shah","year":"1978","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1344","article-title":"Metabolism and disposition of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids after oral administration of ayahuasca","volume":"4","author":"Riba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1955.sp005242","article-title":"Observations on the fate of indolalkylamines in the organism","volume":"127","author":"Erspamer","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/S0969-8051(03)00034-9","article-title":"Demonstration of high monoaminoxidase-A levels in neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors in vitro and in vivo-tumor visualization using positron emission tomography with 11C-harmine","volume":"30","author":"Orlefors","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nucl. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2012.704590","article-title":"Hypotheses regarding the mechanisms of ayahuasca in the treatment of addictions","volume":"44","author":"Liester","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1515\/BMC.2011.030","article-title":"Structures and mechanism of the monoamine oxidase family","volume":"2","author":"Gaweska","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomol. Concepts"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3068","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)95934-X","article-title":"Rabbit serum monoamine oxidase. II. Determinants of substrate specificity","volume":"242","author":"McEwen","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(08)60291-3","article-title":"N, N-dimethyltryptamine: An endogenous hallucinogen","volume":"22","author":"Barker","year":"1981","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(80)90169-0","article-title":"Metabolism of the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine in rat brain homogenates","volume":"29","author":"Barker","year":"1980","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3002(55)90150-5","article-title":"Oxidative N-dealkylation","volume":"18","author":"Fish","year":"1955","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.1657","article-title":"Methodology for determining major constituents of ayahuasca and their metabolites in blood","volume":"26","author":"McIlhenny","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(87)90159-6","article-title":"Urinary excretion of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine and their N-oxides in the rat","volume":"36","author":"Sitaram","year":"1987","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1685","article-title":"Metabolism and urinary disposition of N,N-dimethyltryptamine after oral and smoked administration: A comparative study","volume":"7","author":"Riba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02158111","article-title":"Hydroxylation and N-demethylation of N,N-dimethyltryptamine","volume":"15","author":"Szara","year":"1959","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.2002.01069.x","article-title":"Regional and cellular expression of CYP2D6 in human brain: Higher levels in alcoholics","volume":"82","author":"Miksys","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.102.047050","article-title":"Contribution of individual cytochrome P450 isozymes to the O-demethylation of the psychotropic beta-carboline alkaloids harmaline and harmine","volume":"305","author":"Yu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1208\/s12248-008-9028-5","article-title":"Indolealkylamines: Biotransformations and potential drug-drug interactions","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2008","journal-title":"AAPS J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1038\/230532a0","article-title":"Effect of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and D-lysergic acid diethylamide on the release of 5-hydroxyindoles in rat forebrain","volume":"230","author":"Randic","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(70)90378-3","article-title":"Psychotomimetic drugs and brain 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism","volume":"19","author":"Freedman","year":"1970","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"236","article-title":"Hallucinogenic drugs of the indolealkylamine type and central monoamine neurons","volume":"179","author":"Anden","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(83)90464-8","article-title":"Antagonism of the effects of the hallucinogen DOM and the purported 5-HT agonist quipazine by 5-HT2 antagonists","volume":"91","author":"Glennon","year":"1983","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.23083","article-title":"Increased 5-HT2A receptors in the temporal cortex of parkinsonian patients with visual hallucinations","volume":"25","author":"Huot","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08506","article-title":"Predicting new molecular targets for known drugs","volume":"462","author":"Keiser","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-3057(98)00110-5","article-title":"Agonist properties of N,N-dimethyltryptamine at serotonin 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors","volume":"61","author":"Smith","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-4328(96)00081-2","article-title":"Human psychopharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine","volume":"73","author":"Strassman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-328X(94)90223-2","article-title":"Distribution of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptor family mRNAs: Comparison between 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors","volume":"23","author":"Pompeiano","year":"1994","journal-title":"Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(90)90001-8","article-title":"Differential interactions of indolealkylamines with 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor subtypes","volume":"29","author":"McKenna","year":"1990","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Roth, B.L. (2006). Cellular and subcellular localization of serotonin receptors in the central nervous system. The Serotonin Receptors: From Molecular Pharmacology to Human Therapeutics, Humana Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.01.008","article-title":"Hallucinogens recruit specific cortical 5-HT(2A) receptor-mediated signaling pathways to affect behavior","volume":"53","author":"Weisstaub","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(02)03548-5","article-title":"The hallucinogen d-lysergic acid diethylamide (d-LSD) induces the immediate-early gene c-Fos in rat forebrain","volume":"958","author":"Frankel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(98)01343-5","article-title":"The EGR family of transcription-regulatory factors: Progress at the interface of molecular and systems neuroscience","volume":"22","author":"Tourtellotte","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2008.01.012","article-title":"Induction of early growth response gene 2 expression in the forebrain of mice performing an attention-set-shifting task","volume":"152","author":"DeSteno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1038\/85138","article-title":"A requirement for the immediate early gene Zif268 in the expression of late LTP and long-term memories","volume":"4","author":"Jones","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2015.01.008","article-title":"Long-term use of psychedelic drugs is associated with differences in brain structure and personality in humans","volume":"25","author":"Bouso","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881117725915","article-title":"Serotonin and brain function: A tale of two receptors","volume":"31","author":"Nutt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2015-1701","article-title":"Antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca: A systematic literature review of animal and human studies","volume":"38","author":"Osorio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Braz. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2014-1496","article-title":"Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: A preliminary report","volume":"37","author":"Fde","year":"2015","journal-title":"Braz. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-014-3658-3","article-title":"The role of 5-HT2A, 5-HT 2C and mGlu2 receptors in the behavioral effects of tryptamine hallucinogens N,N-dimethyltryptamine and N,N-diisopropyltryptamine in rats and mice","volume":"232","author":"Carbonaro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.1990.tb00026.x","article-title":"Direct immunohistochemical evidence of the existence of 5-HT1A autoreceptors on serotoninergic neurons in the midbrain raphe nuclei","volume":"2","author":"Sotelo","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S42","DOI":"10.1097\/00005344-199001001-00006","article-title":"Electrophysiological investigation of the adaptive response of the 5-HT system to the administration of 5-HT1A receptor agonists","volume":"15","author":"Blier","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99s","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1395364","article-title":"Role of the serotonergic system in the pathogenesis of major depression and suicidal behavior","volume":"21","author":"Mann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7901","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.5b00179","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of 5-HT6 receptor agonists","volume":"58","author":"Karila","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.13962","article-title":"Serotonin 5-HT7 receptor increases the density of dendritic spines and facilitates synaptogenesis in forebrain neurons","volume":"141","author":"Speranza","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2008.06.061","article-title":"An update on the role of the 5-hydroxytryptamine6 receptor in cognitive function","volume":"55","author":"Fone","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2014.00318","article-title":"The serotonin receptor 7 and the structural plasticity of brain circuits","volume":"8","author":"Volpicelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-009-0308-8","article-title":"Dimethyltryptamine and other hallucinogenic tryptamines exhibit substrate behavior at the serotonin uptake transporter and the vesicle monoamine transporter","volume":"116","author":"Cozzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neural. Transm."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2006.11.075","article-title":"The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain","volume":"559","author":"Nagai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1166127","article-title":"The hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an endogenous sigma-1 receptor regulator","volume":"323","author":"Fontanilla","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2016.04.016","article-title":"Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine","volume":"126","author":"Carbonaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"97","article-title":"The role of sigma-1 receptor, an intracellular chaperone in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"16","author":"Penke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2011.01.017","article-title":"Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens","volume":"61","author":"Halberstadt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphs.2014.07.001","article-title":"Sigma-1 receptor: The novel intracellular target of neuropsychotherapeutic drugs","volume":"127","author":"Hayashi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.2174\/157015908787386113","article-title":"Pharmacology and therapeutic potential of sigma(1) receptor ligands","volume":"6","author":"Cobos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050312113508389","DOI":"10.1177\/2050312113508389","article-title":"Ayahuasca and cancer treatment","volume":"1","author":"Schenberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000436","article-title":"Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: A SPECT study","volume":"36","author":"Sanches","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.60.6.1181","article-title":"Amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, lysergic acid diethylamide, and metabolites of the catecholamine neurotransmitters are agonists of a rat trace amine receptor","volume":"60","author":"Bunzow","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9474","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.181356198","article-title":"Following the trace of elusive amines","volume":"98","author":"Premont","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-014-1329-5","article-title":"On the transmethylation hypothesis: Stress, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, and positive symptoms of psychosis","volume":"122","author":"Grammenos","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural. Transm."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(98)00154-9","article-title":"Behavioral profile of constituents in ayahuasca, an Amazonian psychoactive plant mixture","volume":"54","author":"Freedland","year":"1999","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2008.05.003","article-title":"A case of beta-carboline alkaloid intoxication following ingestion of Peganum harmala seed extract","volume":"179","author":"Frison","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130100879","article-title":"Effects of harmine on dopamine output and metabolism in rat striatum: Role of monoamine oxidase-A inhibition","volume":"159","author":"Iurlo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(77)90190-4","article-title":"Inhibition by beta-carbolines of monoamine uptake into a synaptosomal preparation: Structure-activity relationships","volume":"20","author":"Buckholtz","year":"1977","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(99)00148-9","article-title":"Binding of beta-carbolines and related agents at serotonin (5-HT(2) and 5-HT(1A)), dopamine (D(2)) and benzodiazepine receptors","volume":"60","author":"Glennon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2012.06.001","article-title":"Developments in harmine pharmacology\u2014Implications for ayahuasca use and drug-dependence treatment","volume":"39","author":"Brierley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(90)90318-6","article-title":"Dopamine uptake inhibitory capacities of beta-carboline and 3,4-dihydro-beta-carboline analogs of N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) oxidation products","volume":"509","author":"Drucker","year":"1990","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.05148.x","article-title":"Regulation of the dopamine transporter: Aspects relevant to psychostimulant drugs of abuse","volume":"1187","author":"Schmitt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.4331\/wjbc.v4.i4.141","article-title":"Changes in aminoacidergic and monoaminergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus and amygdala of rats after ayahuasca ingestion","volume":"4","author":"Yonamine","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2009.10399767","article-title":"Experiences of encounters with ayahuasca\u2014\u201cThe vine of the soul\u201d","volume":"41","author":"Kjellgren","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.137.3.236","article-title":"A longitudinal study of urinary excretion of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in psychotic patients","volume":"137","author":"Checkley","year":"1980","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"89","article-title":"Blood dimethyltryptamine concentrations in psychotic disorders","volume":"9","author":"Lipinski","year":"1974","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.133.2.203","article-title":"The psychedelic model of schizophrenia: The case of N,N-dimethyltryptamine","volume":"133","author":"Gillin","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2550","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21381","article-title":"Seeing with the eyes shut: Neural basis of enhanced imagery following Ayahuasca ingestion","volume":"33","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouso, J.C., Gonzalez, D., Fondevila, S., Cutchet, M., Fernandez, X., Ribeiro Barbosa, P.C., Alcazar-Corcoles, M.A., Araujo, W.S., Barbanoj, M.J., and Fabregas, J.M. (2012). Personality, psychopathology, life attitudes and neuropsychological performance among ritual users of Ayahuasca: A longitudinal study. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042421"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125316689030","article-title":"Ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, and psychosis: A systematic review of human studies","volume":"7","author":"Bouso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2005.10399802","article-title":"Interview with Guillermo Arrevalo, a Shipibo urban shaman, by Roger Rumrrill","volume":"37","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0773.1987.tb01711.x","article-title":"Tremorigenic effect and inhibition of tryptamine and serotonin receptor binding by beta-carbolines","volume":"60","author":"Airaksinen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000038385.60538.19","article-title":"Elevation of blood beta-carboline alkaloids in essential tremor","volume":"59","author":"Louis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-010-1109-7","article-title":"Effects of 5-HT2A receptor stimulation and blocking on immune response","volume":"150","author":"Davydova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2014.960113","article-title":"Immunological effects of ayahuasca in humans","volume":"46","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1159\/000139317","article-title":"Comparison of the hallucinogenic indole alkaloids ibogaine and harmaline for potential immunomodulatory activity","volume":"51","author":"House","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pharmacology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-198410000-00001","article-title":"Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature","volume":"172","author":"Strassman","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(98)00129-X","article-title":"Do hallucinogens cause residual neuropsychological toxicity?","volume":"53","author":"Halpern","year":"1999","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/9.4.183","article-title":"A mescaline associated fatality","volume":"9","author":"Reynolds","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.123.7.884","article-title":"Suicide during an LSD reaction","volume":"123","author":"Keeler","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.57.4.270","article-title":"Solar retinopathy from sun-gazing under the influence of LSD","volume":"57","author":"Schatz","year":"1973","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9394(76)90295-6","article-title":"Severe solar maculopathy associated with the use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)","volume":"81","author":"Fuller","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.4.815","article-title":"5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine-induced flashbacks","volume":"162","author":"Ikeda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.1998.10399712","article-title":"Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: A potential combination for severe adverse interactions","volume":"30","author":"Callaway","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.9740\/mhc.2017.01.039","article-title":"Ayahuasca: An ancient sacrament for treatment of contemporary psychiatric illness?","volume":"7","author":"Malcolm","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ment. Health Clin."},{"key":"ref_168","first-page":"533","article-title":"Serotonin syndrome","volume":"13","author":"Kaye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ochsner. J."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"Sr15","article-title":"Evidence of health and safety in American members of a religion who use a hallucinogenic sacrament","volume":"14","author":"Halpern","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2015.05.004","article-title":"Behavioural and neurotoxic effects of ayahuasca infusion (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis) in female Wistar rat","volume":"118","author":"Junior","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/29.8.838","article-title":"A fatal intoxication following the ingestion of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in an ayahuasca preparation","volume":"29","author":"Sklerov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2018.01.002","article-title":"Ayahuasca: A risk for travellers?","volume":"21","author":"Bauer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_173","first-page":"287","article-title":"Fatal nicotine intoxication resulting from the ingestion of \u201cayahuasca\u201d","volume":"28","author":"Warren","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colaco, C.S., Alves, S.S., Nolli, L.M., Pinheiro, W.O., de Oliveira, D.G.R., Santos, B.W.L., Pic-Taylor, A., Mortari, M.R., and Caldas, E.D. (2020). Toxicity of ayahuasca after 28 days daily exposure and effects on monoamines and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in brain of Wistar rats. Metab. Brain Dis.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-020-00547-w"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.06.038","article-title":"Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans","volume":"58","author":"Halpern","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biological. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krebs, T.S., and Johansen, P.O. (2013). Psychedelics and mental health: A population study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063972"},{"key":"ref_177","first-page":"288","article-title":"Peganum harmala intoxication, a case report","volume":"3","author":"Moshiri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Avicenna. J. Phytomed."},{"key":"ref_178","first-page":"319","article-title":"A case of overdose with Peganum harmala L.","volume":"6","author":"Amamou","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650701323205","article-title":"Syrian rue tea: A recipe for disaster","volume":"46","author":"Yuruktumen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20272","article-title":"Toxicity of chronic ayahuasca administration to the pregnant rat: How relevant it is regarding the human, ritual use of ayahuasca?","volume":"89","year":"2010","journal-title":"Birth. Defects. Res. B Dev. Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0442.1971.tb00573.x","article-title":"Effect of harmine and harmaline hydrochloride on pregnancy in white rats","volume":"18","author":"Kamel","year":"1971","journal-title":"Zent. Vet. A"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.0270147","article-title":"The effect of amine oxidase inhibitors on pregnancy","volume":"27","author":"Poulson","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20244","article-title":"Maternal and developmental toxicity of ayahuasca in Wistar rats","volume":"89","author":"Oliveira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Birth. Defects. Res. B Dev. Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3167-9","article-title":"Acute effects of ayahuasca on neuropsychological performance: Differences in executive function between experienced and occasional users","volume":"230","author":"Bouso","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-011-2434-x","article-title":"Pharmacology of ayahuasca administered in two repeated doses","volume":"219","author":"Grasa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00422642","article-title":"The effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine on operant behavior in squirrel monkeys","volume":"29","author":"Cole","year":"1973","journal-title":"Psychopharmacologia"},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"213","article-title":"Failure of N,N-dimethyltryptamine to evoke tolerance in cats","volume":"7","author":"Gillin","year":"1973","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00413244","article-title":"The effect of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in human subjects tolerant to lysergic acid diethylamide","volume":"5","author":"Rosenberg","year":"1964","journal-title":"Psychopharmacologia"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1959.03590030063008","article-title":"Acquired and crossed tolerance to mescaline, LSD-25, and BOL-148","volume":"1","author":"Balestrieri","year":"1959","journal-title":"AMA Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00401404","article-title":"Tolerance and cross-tolerance among psychotomimetic drugs","volume":"13","author":"Appel","year":"1968","journal-title":"Psychopharmacologia"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2009.07.033","article-title":"Plants with neurobiological activity as potential targets for drug discovery","volume":"33","author":"Gomes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00035","article-title":"The therapeutic potentials of ayahuasca: Possible effects against various diseases of civilization","volume":"7","author":"Frecska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labate, B.C., and Cavnar, C. (2014). Therapeutic applications of Ayahuasca and other sacred medicines. The Therapeutic Use of Ayahuasca, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-40426-9"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291718001356","article-title":"Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: A randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"49","author":"Barreto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2009.10.030","article-title":"Banisteriopsis caapi, a unique combination of MAO inhibitory and antioxidative constituents for the activities relevant to neurodegenerative disorders and Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"127","author":"Samoylenko","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.10.026","article-title":"Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging: A systematic review of human studies: Hallucinogens and neuroimaging","volume":"71","author":"Osorio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.05.022","article-title":"Psychedelics promote structural and functional neural plasticity","volume":"23","author":"Ly","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-199602000-00004","article-title":"Human psychopharmacology of hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brazil","volume":"184","author":"Grob","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_199","unstructured":"Metzner, R. (1999). The psychology of ayahuasca. Ayahuasca: Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature, Thunder\u2019s Mouth Press."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2005.10399792","article-title":"Ayahuasca in adolescence: A preliminary psychiatric assessment","volume":"37","author":"Grob","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2005.10399791","article-title":"Ayahuasca in adolescence: A neuropsychological assessment","volume":"37","author":"Lopez","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881114565653","article-title":"Classic psychedelic use is associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the United States adult population","volume":"29","author":"Hendricks","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15201","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14700-6","article-title":"Well-being, problematic alcohol consumption and acute subjective drug effects in past-year ayahuasca users: A large, international, self-selecting online survey","volume":"7","author":"Lawn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-013-1024-y","article-title":"A possibly sigma-1 receptor mediated role of dimethyltryptamine in tissue protection, regeneration, and immunity","volume":"120","author":"Frecska","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neural. Transm."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphs.2014.11.011","article-title":"The involvement of the sigma-1 receptor in neurodegeneration and neurorestoration","volume":"127","author":"Ruscher","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2005.08.005","article-title":"Antidepressant-like effect of harmane and other beta-carbolines in the mouse forced swim test","volume":"16","author":"Farzin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, F., Chen, Y., Song, Y., Huang, L., Zhai, D., Dong, Y., Lai, L., Zhang, T., Li, D., and Pang, X. (2012). A natural small molecule harmine inhibits angiogenesis and suppresses tumour growth through activation of p53 in endothelial cells. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0052162"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.4161\/oxim.3.5.13109","article-title":"Harmine and imipramine promote antioxidant activities in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus","volume":"3","author":"Reus","year":"2010","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.112743","article-title":"Neuroprotective potential of Ayahuasca and untargeted metabolomics analyses: Applicability to Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"255","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2019.112945","article-title":"Biomedical analysis of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) of natural origin","volume":"179","author":"Tagliabracci","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bky105","article-title":"Harmala alkaloids identify ayahausca intoxication in a urine drug screen","volume":"43","author":"Pope","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.4155\/bio.12.124","article-title":"Determination of dimethyltryptamine and \u03b2-carbolines (ayahuasca alkaloids) in plasma samples by LC-MS\/MS","volume":"4","author":"Oliveira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tavares, L., Monedeiro, F., Bordin, D.M., and De Martinis, B.S. (2020). Investigation of ayahuasca beta-carboline alkaloids and tryptamine in sweat samples from religious community participants by GC-MS. J. Anal. Toxicol.","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkz116"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2014.08.006","article-title":"Ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry determination of hallucinogenic drugs in hair of psychedelic plants and mushrooms consumers","volume":"100","author":"Pichini","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bku133","article-title":"Determination of designer drug cross-reactivity on five commercial immunoassay screening kits","volume":"39","author":"Regester","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2019.1576877","article-title":"Syrian rue seeds interacted with acacia tree bark in an herbal stew resulted in N,N-dimethyltryptamine poisoning","volume":"57","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2019.06.014","article-title":"Validation of an analytical method for the determination of the main ayahuasca active compounds and application to real ayahuasca samples from Brazil","volume":"1124","author":"Souza","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1002\/pca.1110","article-title":"Gas chromatographic analysis of dimethyltryptamine and beta-carboline alkaloids in ayahuasca, an Amazonian psychoactive plant beverage","volume":"20","author":"Pires","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytochem. Anal."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.1023","article-title":"Identification of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-carbolines in psychotropic ayahuasca beverage","volume":"22","author":"Gambelunghe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomed. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2013.01.017","article-title":"Determination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in beverages consumed in religious practices by headspace solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography ion trap mass spectrometry","volume":"106","author":"Gaujac","year":"2013","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2020.110298","article-title":"A rapid analytical strategy for the determination of ayahuasca alkaloids in non-ritualistic approaches by UHPLC-MS\/MS","volume":"312","author":"Eller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-8579-1_12","article-title":"Detection of diagnostic plant-derived psychoactive biomarkers in fingerprints by MALDI-SPIRALTOF-mass spectrometry imaging","volume":"1810","author":"Longo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2005.10399797","article-title":"Fast and slow metabolizers of Hoasca","volume":"37","author":"Callaway","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2016.06.009","article-title":"Application of ambient ionization high resolution mass spectrometry to determination of the botanical provenance of the constituents of psychoactive drug mixtures","volume":"266","author":"Lesiak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1343","article-title":"Analytical techniques for the determination of tryptamines and beta-carbolines in plant matrices and in psychoactive beverages consumed during religious ceremonies and neo-shamanic urban practices","volume":"4","author":"Gaujac","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dos Santos, R.G., and Hallak, J.E.C. (2019). Ayahuasca, an ancient substance with traditional and contemporary use in neuropsychiatry and neuroscience. Epilepsy Behav., 106300.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2019.04.053"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881114568039","article-title":"Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study","volume":"29","author":"Johansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881108093587","article-title":"Human hallucinogen research: Guidelines for safety","volume":"22","author":"Johnson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/13\/11\/334\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:27:00Z","timestamp":1760178420000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/13\/11\/334"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,23]]},"references-count":228,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ph13110334"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph13110334","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,23]]}}}