{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T21:29:26Z","timestamp":1788470966799,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]],"date-time":"2020-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tumor cells are particularly adept at exploiting the immunosuppressive potential of neutrophils as a strategy to achieve uncontrolled proliferation and spread. Recruitment of neutrophils, particularly those of an immature phenotype, known as granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells, is achieved via the production of tumor-derived granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and neutrophil-selective chemokines. This is not the only mechanism by which G-CSF contributes to tumor-mediated immunosuppression. In this context, the G-CSF receptor is expressed on various cells of the adaptive and innate immune systems and is associated with induction of T cell polarization towards the Th2 and regulatory T cell (Treg) phenotypes. In contrast to the potentially adverse effects of sustained, endogenous production of G-CSF by tumor cells, stringently controlled prophylactic administration of recombinant (r) G-CSF is now a widely practiced strategy in medical oncology to prevent, and in some cases treat, chemotherapy-induced severe neutropenia. Following an overview of the synthesis, structure and function of G-CSF and its receptor, the remainder of this review is focused on: (i) effects of G-CSF on the cells of the adaptive and innate immune systems; (ii) mechanisms by which this cytokine promotes tumor progression and invasion; and (iii) current clinical applications and potential risks of the use of rG-CSF in medical oncology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph13110406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]],"date-time":"2020-11-20T09:46:18Z","timestamp":1605865578000},"page":"406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Contrasting Immunopathogenic and Therapeutic Roles of Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor in Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Annette","family":"Theron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5899-4472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helen","family":"Steel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7610-3653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernardo","family":"Rapoport","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"},{"name":"The Medical Oncology Centre of Rosebank, Johannesburg 2196, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5925-6452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronald","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.CIR-13-0151","article-title":"The colony-stimulating factors and cancer","volume":"1","author":"Metcalf","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. 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