{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T13:18:44Z","timestamp":1788355124456,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]],"date-time":"2022-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012359","name":"DBT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BT\/PR32827\/TRM\/120\/258\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BT\/PR32827\/TRM\/120\/258\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), being a dairy-borne pathogen, resistant of pasteurization and other sterilization techniques, is a major cause for development of inflammatory bowel disorders such as Johne\u2019s disease (JD) in dairy animals and Crohn\u2019s Disease (CD) in humans, for which no therapy is available to date. In the absence of effective therapy or a vaccine, management of CD has been accomplished by removal of the affected intestines. However, usually, even after removal of 2\/3 of the intestine, CD reoccurs. Hence, there exists a need to develop an alternative therapy for such infection. The potential of herbals remains unexplored against MAP and related infections. Therefore, the conducted study is a novel initiative for the evaluation of anti-mycobacterial activity of bioactive extracts of Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. &amp; Wendl. against MAP infection. The said plant was authenticated according to the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the extracts were done using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. Preliminary in vitro pharmacological assessments revealed the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory potential of the extracts. REMA assay was conducted to determine their anti-MAP activity along with determination of the best active extract. The hydro-alcoholic extract showed the best inhibition of MAP, providing a potential ray of hope against this emerging major pathogen of animals, and associated with Crohn\u2019s disease and other autoimmune disorders in human beings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15111367","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]],"date-time":"2022-11-08T10:49:51Z","timestamp":1667904591000},"page":"1367","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploration of Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. &amp; Wendl. against Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis and Assessment of Its Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory Potential"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Varsha","family":"Srivastava","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioactive Natural Product Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manthena","family":"Navabharath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences & Humanities, GLA University, Mathura 281406, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8140-2033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saurabh","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences & Humanities, GLA University, Mathura 281406, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shoor Vir","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences & Humanities, GLA University, Mathura 281406, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1573-152X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sayeed","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioactive Natural Product Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/1757-4749-1-15","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Crohn\u2019s disease and the Doomsday scenario","volume":"1","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gut Pathog."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whittington, R., Donat, K., Weber, M.F., Kelton, D., Nielsen, S.S., Eisenberg, S., Arrigoni, N., Juste, R., S\u00e1ez, J.L., and Dhand, N. (2019). Control of paratuberculosis: Who, why and how. A review of 48 countries. BMC Vet. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-1943-4"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.01.008","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of Types I\/III strains of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis isolated from goats and cattle","volume":"115","author":"Dejuan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.71.3.1210-1214.2005","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Cultured from Locally and Commercially Pasteurized Cow\u2019s Milk in the Czech Republic","volume":"71","author":"Ayele","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2006.10.019","article-title":"Improved template DNA preparation procedure for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in milk by PCR","volume":"69","author":"Gao","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2000.01954.x","article-title":"Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis from breast milk of Crohn\u2019s disease patients","volume":"95","author":"Naser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1637\/8920-050809-Reg.1","article-title":"Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Wild European Starlings at a Kansas Cattle Feedlot","volume":"53","author":"Gaukler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2017.1397301","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis\u2014An important food borne pathogen of high public health significance with special reference to india: An update","volume":"37","author":"Chaubey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Veter. Q."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00096","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis Zoonosis\u2014The Hundred Year War\u2014Beyond Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"6","author":"Sechi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3883","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01371-07","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn\u2019s Disease and Johne\u2019s Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities","volume":"45","author":"Scanu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garvey, M. (2020). Mycobacterium Avium Paratuberculosis: A Disease Burden on the Dairy Industry. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10101773"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.3.489-512.2001","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Veterinary Medicine","volume":"14","author":"Harris","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"53","article-title":"Molecular Biology of Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"374","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"497","article-title":"Bio-load of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in buffaloes","volume":"38","author":"Karthikeyan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Buffalo Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-7788.72489","article-title":"Study of the synergistic anti-inflammatory activity of Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad and Wendl. and Cassia fistula Linn","volume":"1","author":"Anwikar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Ayurveda Res."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2010). The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part-I, Volume-I, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1016\/S1995-7645(11)60227-7","article-title":"Hepatoprotective effect of Solanum xanthocarpum fruit extract against CCl4 induced acute liver toxicity in experimental animals","volume":"4","author":"Gupta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.7324\/JAPS.2019.90318","article-title":"Phytochemical and pharmacological activities of Solanum surattense Burm. f.\u2014A review","volume":"9","author":"Tekuri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.20.1.1275","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: Pathogen, pathogenesis and diagnosis","volume":"20","author":"Manning","year":"2001","journal-title":"OIE Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazlun, M.H., Sabran, S.F., Mohamed, M., Abu Bakar, M.F., and Abdullah, Z. (2019). Phenolic Compounds as Promising Drug Candidates in Tuberculosis Therapy. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24132449"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10423","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.201701812","article-title":"Natural and Synthetic Flavonoids as Potent Mycobacterium tuberculosis UGM Inhibitors","volume":"23","author":"Villaume","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemistry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5276130","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5276130","article-title":"Role of Antioxidants and Natural Products in Inflammation","volume":"2016","author":"Arulselvan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"482","article-title":"Phytochemical and Pharmacological Profile of Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad and Wendel: A Review","volume":"7","author":"Poojari","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.115897","article-title":"Structural characterization and immune enhancement activity of a novel polysaccharide from Moringa oleifera leaves","volume":"234","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s40816-020-00207-7","article-title":"Membrane stabilization as a mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic root extract of Choi (Piper chaba)","volume":"6","author":"Yesmin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Phytosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkw044","article-title":"Delamanid susceptibility testing ofMycobacterium tuberculosisusing the resazurin microtitre assay and the BACTEC\u2122 MGIT\u2122 960 system","volume":"71","author":"Schena","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00434","article-title":"UPLC-ESI-MS\/MS and HPTLC Method for Quantitative Estimation of Cytotoxic Glycosides and Aglycone in Bioactivity Guided Fractions of Solanum nigrum L.","volume":"8","author":"Chester","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678611","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.678611","article-title":"Development of Synergy-Based Combination for Learning and Memory Using in vitro, in vivo and TLC-MS-Bioautographic Studies","volume":"12","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"313","article-title":"Characterization of phytoconstituents and evaluation of total phenolic content, anthelmintic, and antimicrobial activities of Solanum violaceum Ortega","volume":"3","year":"2013","journal-title":"Avicenna J. Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1080\/10942910801992942","article-title":"Total Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolic Contents in Different Turkish Eggplant (Solanum Melongena L.) Cultivars","volume":"12","author":"Okmen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2020.103887","article-title":"A specific peptide with immunomodulatory activity from Pseudostellaria heterophylla and the action mechanism","volume":"68","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"58","article-title":"Immunomodulatory activity of Indigofera tinctoria leaf extract on in vitro macrophage re-sponses and lymphocyte proliferation","volume":"8","author":"Boothapandi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0367-326X(99)00030-1","article-title":"Membrane stabilizing activity\u2014A possible mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory activity of Cedrus deodara wood oil","volume":"70","author":"Shinde","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okoli, C.O., Akah, P.A., Onuoha, N.J., Okoye, T.C., Nwoye, A.C., and Nworu, C.S. (2008). Acanthus montanus: An experimental evaluation of the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and immunological properties of a traditional remedy for furuncles. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6882-8-27"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gunathilake, K.D.P.P., Ranaweera, K.K.D.S., and Rupasinghe, H.P.V. (2018). Influence of Boiling, Steaming and Frying of Selected Leafy Vegetables on the In Vitro Anti-inflammation Associated Biological Activities. Plants, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants7010022"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2003.08.007","article-title":"Evaluation of four DNA extraction methods for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction","volume":"48","author":"Chui","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1134\/S1061934816050099","article-title":"Rapid diagnosis of mycobacterium tuberculosis with electrical impedance spectroscopy in suspensions using interdigitated microelectrode","volume":"71","author":"Pourmir","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1907.25320140022001f","article-title":"The Nephelometer: An instrument for media used for estimating the number of bacteria in suspensions used for calculating the opsonic index and for vaccines","volume":"49","author":"McFaland","year":"1907","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1995.1232","article-title":"Solid-Phase Hybridization Capture of Low-Abundance Target DNA Sequences: Application to the Polymerase Chain Reaction Detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp. silvaticum","volume":"226","author":"Millar","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/15\/11\/1367\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:12:18Z","timestamp":1760145138000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/15\/11\/1367"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ph15111367"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph15111367","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]]}}}