{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T06:29:01Z","timestamp":1789194541830,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]],"date-time":"2023-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The demand for a more efficient and targeted method for intranasal drug delivery has led to sophisticated device design, delivery methods, and aerosol properties. Due to the complex nasal geometry and measurement limitations, numerical modeling is an appropriate approach to simulate the airflow, aerosol dispersion, and deposition for the initial assessment of novel methodologies for better drug delivery. In this study, a CT-based, 3D-printed model of a realistic nasal airway was reconstructed, and airflow pressure, velocity, turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), and aerosol deposition patterns were simultaneously investigated. Different inhalation flowrates (5, 10, 15, 30, and 45 L\/min) and aerosol sizes (1, 1.5, 2.5, 3, 6, 15, and 30 \u00b5m) were simulated using laminar and SST viscous models, with the results compared and verified by experimental data. The results revealed that from the vestibule to the nasopharynx, the pressure drop was negligible for flow rates of 5, 10, and 15 L\/min, while for flow rates of 30 and 40 L\/min, a considerable pressure drop was observed by approximately 14 and 10%, respectively. However, from the nasopharynx and trachea, this reduction was approximately 70%. The aerosol deposition fraction alongside the nasal cavities and upper airway showed a significant difference in pattern, dependent on particle size. More than 90% of the initiated particles were deposited in the anterior region, while just under 20% of the injected ultrafine particles were deposited in this area. The turbulent and laminar models showed slightly different values for the deposition fraction and efficiency of drug delivery for ultrafine particles (about 5%); however, the deposition pattern for ultrafine particles was very different.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16030406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]],"date-time":"2023-03-08T02:08:14Z","timestamp":1678241294000},"page":"406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Drug Inhalation in Realistic Human Upper Airway Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Morsal","family":"Momeni Larimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol P.O. Box 484, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arash","family":"Babamiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Kurdistan, Kurdistan 66177-15175, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8178-2512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohit","family":"Biglarian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 11155-8639, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abas","family":"Ramiar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol P.O. Box 484, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reza","family":"Tabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Semnan University, Semnan 35131-19111, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0476-0237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kiao","family":"Inthavong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, RMIT University, P.O. Box 71, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9298-5497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Farnoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum M\u00fcnchen, 85764 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"Comprehensive Pneumology Center, Member of the German Center for Lung Research, Max-Lebsche-Platz 31, 81377 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Lung Biology and Disease, Helmholtz Zentrum M\u00fcnchen, 85764 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14410","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93769-6","article-title":"The Effect of Decongestion on Nasal Airway Patency and Airflow","volume":"11","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2018.12.006","article-title":"Detailed Computational Analysis of Flow Dynamics in an Extended Respiratory Airway Model","volume":"61","author":"Shang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00202613","article-title":"Respiratory Diseases in the World: One Voice \u201cUnited for Lung Health\u201d","volume":"43","author":"Barnes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00025.2015","article-title":"The Contribution of Small Airway Obstruction to the Pathogenesis of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"97","author":"Hogg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdollahi, H., Babamiri, A., Ahookhosh, K., Farnoud, A., and Nabaei, M. (2021, January 25). Effects of Inhalation Flow Rate on Particle Deposition and Flow Structure in a Model of Tracheobronchial Airway. Proceedings of the 2021 28th National and 6th International Iranian Conference on Biomedical Engineering (ICBME), IEEE, Tehran, Iran.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICBME54433.2021.9750358"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"21","article-title":"Airflow Simulation inside the Nasal Cavity","volume":"4","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mapta J. Mech. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-021-01518-5","article-title":"Effect of Swirling Flow and Particle-Release Pattern on Drug Delivery to Human Tracheobronchial Airways","volume":"20","author":"Taheri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2021.105911","article-title":"Flow Structure and Particle Deposition Analyses for Optimization of a Pressurized Metered Dose Inhaler (PMDI) in a Model of Tracheobronchial Airway","volume":"164","author":"Ahookhosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1993.75.5.2273","article-title":"Velocity Profiles Measured for Airflow through a Large-Scale Model of the Human Nasal Cavity","volume":"75","author":"Hahn","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101905","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0024264","article-title":"Large Eddy Simulations of Airflow and Particle Deposition in Pulsating Bi-Directional Nasal Drug Delivery","volume":"32","author":"Farnoud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2020.103816","article-title":"Simulation of Patient-Specific Bi-Directional Pulsating Nasal Aerosol Dispersion and Deposition with Clockwise 45\u00b0 and 90\u00b0 Nosepieces","volume":"123","author":"Farnoud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2902","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.746420","article-title":"Pulsatile Bi-Directional Aerosol Flow Affects Aerosol Delivery to the Intranasal Olfactory Region: A Patient-Specific Computational Study","volume":"12","author":"Farnoud","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2017.10.006","article-title":"Geometry and Airflow Dynamics Analysis in the Nasal Cavity during Inhalation","volume":"66","author":"Inthavong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1177\/1757482X18756012","article-title":"Effect of Morphology on Nanoparticle Transport and Deposition in Human Upper Tracheobronchial Airways","volume":"10","author":"Shang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comput. Multiph. Flows"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjh033","article-title":"Effect of Anatomy on Human Nasal Air Flow and Odorant Transport Patterns: Implications for Olfaction","volume":"29","author":"Zhao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjj008","article-title":"Numerical Modeling of Turbulent and Laminar Airflow and Odorant Transport during Sniffing in the Human and Rat Nose","volume":"31","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.23653","article-title":"Numerical Simulation of Airflow Patterns in Nose Models with Differently Localized Septal Perforations","volume":"123","author":"Lindemann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3755","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-60755-3","article-title":"Characterization of the Airflow within an Average Geometry of the Healthy Human Nasal Cavity","volume":"10","author":"Hildebrandt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.08.031","article-title":"Computational Modeling and Validation of Human Nasal Airflow under Various Breathing Conditions","volume":"64","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2010.11.008","article-title":"Simulation of Sprayed Particle Deposition in a Human Nasal Cavity Including a Nasal Spray Device","volume":"42","author":"Inthavong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2016.08.014","article-title":"Effects of Partial Middle Turbinectomy with Varying Resection Volume and Location on Nasal Functions and Airflow Characteristics by CFD","volume":"77","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3121","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-017-4611-y","article-title":"New CFD Tools to Evaluate Nasal Airflow","volume":"274","author":"Burgos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1554","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2017.1385779","article-title":"Aerodynamic Evaluation of the Empty Nose Syndrome by Means of Computational Fluid Dynamics","volume":"20","author":"Balakin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Biomech. Biomed. Engin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2021.105913","article-title":"Effect of Breathing Profiles on Nebuliser Drug Delivery Targeting the Paranasal Sinuses in a Post-Operative Nasal Cavity","volume":"161","author":"Shrestha","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-016-0768-3","article-title":"Magnetic Drug Targeting through a Realistic Model of Human Tracheobronchial Airways Using Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics","volume":"15","author":"Pourmehran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2020.105398","article-title":"Acoustically-Driven Drug Delivery to Maxillary Sinuses: Aero-Acoustic Analysis","volume":"151","author":"Pourmehran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120927","article-title":"Acoustic Drug Delivery to the Maxillary Sinus","volume":"606","author":"Pourmehran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-019-01230-5","article-title":"The Impact of Geometrical Parameters on Acoustically Driven Drug Delivery to Maxillary Sinuses","volume":"19","author":"Pourmehran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2022.103986","article-title":"Targeted Drug Delivery with Polydisperse Particle Transport and Deposition in Patient-Specific Upper Airway during Inhalation and Exhalation","volume":"308","author":"Biglarian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1080\/02786828708959166","article-title":"Experimental Study of Particle Deposition in Bends of Circular Cross Section","volume":"7","author":"Pui","year":"1987","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2018.12.095","article-title":"A Unifying Correlation for Laminar Particle Deposition in 90-Degree Pipe Bends","volume":"345","author":"Inthavong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2011.596171","article-title":"Inertial Particle Deposition in a 90\u00b0 Laminar Flow Bend: An Eulerian Fluid Particle Approach","volume":"45","author":"Pilou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"180","article-title":"A Numerical Study of Flow Field and Particle Deposition in Nasal Channels with Deviant Geometry","volume":"15","author":"Thune","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Comput. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/10407780701454162","article-title":"Fluid Flow in a System with Separate Laminar and Turbulent Zones","volume":"53","author":"Sparrow","year":"2008","journal-title":"Numer. Heat Transf. Part A Appl."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2020.103238","article-title":"Deposition Fraction of Ellipsoidal Fibers in the Human Nasal Cavity- Influence of Non-Creeping Formulation of Hydrodynamic Forces and Torques","volume":"126","author":"Abolhassantash","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Multiph. Flow"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-7930(01)00097-4","article-title":"Numerical Simulation of the Flow Field in a Model of the Nasal Cavity","volume":"32","author":"Meinke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1260\/1757-482X.2.4.207","article-title":"Unsteady Particle Deposition in a Human Nasal Cavity during Inhalation","volume":"2","author":"Se","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comput. Multiph. Flows"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01118.2018","article-title":"The Complexities of Nasal Airflow: Theory and Practice","volume":"127","author":"Tolley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"L\u00f6nnermark, A., and Ingason, H. (2022, December 29). The Effect of Cross-Sectional Area and Air Velocity on the Conditions in a Tunnel during a Fire. Available online: https:\/\/www.diva-portal.org\/smash\/get\/diva2:962400\/FULLTEXT01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anl.2018.02.006","article-title":"Effects of Nasal Septum Perforation Repair on Nasal Airflow: An Analysis Using Computational Fluid Dynamics on Preoperative and Postoperative Three-Dimensional Models","volume":"45","author":"Nomura","year":"2018","journal-title":"Auris Nasus Larynx"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2013.12.009","article-title":"On Locating the Obstruction in the Upper Airway via Numerical Simulation","volume":"193","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40510-015-0085-x","article-title":"Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis of the Upper Airway after Rapid Maxillary Expansion: A Case Report","volume":"16","author":"Ghoneima","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Orthod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2018.05.008","article-title":"Flow Features and Micro-Particle Deposition in a Human Respiratory System during Sniffing","volume":"123","author":"Calmet","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babamiri, A., Ahookhosh, K., Abdollahi, H., Taheri, M.H., Cui, X., Nabaei, M., and Farnoud, A. (2022). Effect of Laryngeal Jet on Dry Powder Inhaler Aerosol Deposition: A Numerical Simulation. Comput. Methods Biomech. Biomed. Engin., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2022.2152280"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/3\/406\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:49:58Z","timestamp":1760122198000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/3\/406"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ph16030406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph16030406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]}}}