{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T14:57:52Z","timestamp":1781103472619,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006245","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 103-2314-B-002-187-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 103-2314-B-002-187-MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006245","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human studies on the effect of rosiglitazone on inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are still lacking. We investigated whether rosiglitazone might affect IBD risk by using the reimbursement database of Taiwan\u2019s National Health Insurance to enroll a propensity-score-matched cohort of ever users and never users of rosiglitazone. The patients should have been newly diagnosed with diabetes mellitus between 1999 and 2006 and should have been alive on 1 January 2007. We then started to follow the patients from 1 January 2007 until 31 December 2011 for a new diagnosis of IBD. Propensity-score-weighted hazard ratios were estimated with regards to rosiglitazone exposure in terms of ever users versus never users and in terms of cumulative duration and cumulative dose of rosiglitazone therapy for dose\u2013response analyses. The joint effects and interactions between rosiglitazone and risk factors of psoriasis\/arthropathies, dorsopathies, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease\/tobacco abuse and the use of metformin were estimated by Cox regression after adjustment for all covariates. A total of 6226 ever users and 6226 never users were identified and the respective numbers of incident IBD were 95 and 111. When we compared the risk of IBD in ever users to that of the never users, the estimated hazard ratio (0.870, 95% confidence interval: 0.661\u20131.144) was not statistically significant. When cumulative duration and cumulative dose of rosiglitazone therapy were categorized by tertiles and hazard ratios were estimated by comparing the tertiles of rosiglitazone exposure to the never users, none of the hazard ratios reached statistical significance. In secondary analyses, rosiglitazone has a null association with Crohn\u2019s disease, but a potential benefit on ulcerative colitis (UC) could not be excluded. However, because of the low incidence of UC, we were not able to perform detailed dose\u2013response analyses for UC. In the joint effect analyses, only the subgroup of psoriasis\/arthropathies (-)\/rosiglitazone (-) showed a significantly lower risk in comparison to the subgroup of psoriasis\/arthropathies (+)\/rosiglitazone (-). No interactions between rosiglitazone and the major risk factors or metformin use were observed. We concluded that rosiglitazone has a null effect on the risk of IBD, but the potential benefit on UC awaits further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16050679","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T12:14:08Z","timestamp":1682943248000},"page":"679","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Rosiglitazone Does Not Affect the Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Taiwanese Type 2 Diabetes Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9545-7123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chin-Hsiao","family":"Tseng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10051, Taiwan"},{"name":"Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"},{"name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caioni, G., Viscido, A., d\u2019Angelo, M., Panella, G., Castelli, V., Merola, C., Frieri, G., Latella, G., Cimini, A., and Benedetti, E. (2021). Inflammatory bowel disease: New insights into the interplay between environmental factors and PPAR\u03b3. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22030985"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60750-8","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease: Cause and immunobiology","volume":"369","author":"Baumgart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saez, A., Herrero-Fernandez, B., Gomez-Bris, R., S\u00e1nchez-Martinez, H., and Gonzalez-Granado, J.M. (2023). Pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease: Innate immune system. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021526"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suc.2019.08.001","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease presentation and diagnosis","volume":"99","author":"Flynn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii64","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjab185","article-title":"Blockade of IL-23: What is in the pipeline?","volume":"16","author":"Parigi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611256","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.611256","article-title":"The IL23-IL17 immune axis in the treatment of ulcerative colitis: Successes, defeats, and ongoing challenges","volume":"12","author":"Noviello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.12.246","article-title":"Time to revisit disease classification in inflammatory bowel disease: Is the current classification of inflammatory bowel disease good enough for optimal clinical management?","volume":"162","author":"Verstockt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.00730","article-title":"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: Experimental targeting for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"11","author":"Decara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-022-00689-w","article-title":"Cutaneous manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease: A basic overview","volume":"23","author":"Pagani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-022-01903-6","article-title":"Renal manifestations in inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Hoffman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1080\/00015385.2021.1940607","article-title":"State of the art review: Coronary artery disease in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms, prevalence, and outcomes","volume":"77","author":"Masood","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.10.035","article-title":"Colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms and management","volume":"162","author":"Shah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/s10555-022-10028-4","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease and carcinogenesis","volume":"41","author":"Kitamoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Metastasis Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2022.08.012","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease and cardiovascular diseases","volume":"135","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916645","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.916645","article-title":"Causal association between inflammatory bowel disease and psoriasis: A two-sample bidirectional mendelian randomization study","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2022.110610","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease: A potential pathogenic factor of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"119","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1007\/s00384-022-04131-9","article-title":"The risk of dementia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Colorectal. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjab191","article-title":"Depression and inflammatory bowel disease: A didirectional two-sample mendelian randomization study","volume":"16","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00634-6","article-title":"Depression and anxiety in inflammatory bowel disease: Epidemiology, mechanisms and treatment","volume":"19","author":"Bisgaard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masanetz, R.K., Winkler, J., Winner, B., G\u00fcnther, C., and S\u00fc\u00df, P. (2022). The gut-immune-brain axis: An important route for neuropsychiatric morbidity in inflammatory bowel disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231911111"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12316","article-title":"New endoscopic tools in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"10","author":"Nardone","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12196","article-title":"Ultrasonography in inflammatory bowel disease\u2014So far we are?","volume":"10","author":"Christian","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32448-0","article-title":"Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: A systematic review of population-based studies","volume":"390","author":"Ng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2021.62.2.99","article-title":"Incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease across Asia","volume":"62","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Yonsei Med. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(22)00047-4","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in sub-Saharan Africa: Epidemiology, risk factors, and challenges in diagnosis","volume":"7","author":"Watermeyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12317","article-title":"Implications of the changing epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in a changing world","volume":"10","author":"Agrawal","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.15919","article-title":"Personalized medicine in inflammatory bowel disease: Perspectives on Asia","volume":"37","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2022.138","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in Korea: Epidemiology and pathophysiology","volume":"37","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994619","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.994619","article-title":"Long-term trends in the burden of inflammatory bowel disease in China over three decades: A joinpoint regression and age-period-cohort analysis based on GBD 2019","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12350","article-title":"The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in Asia and Asian immigrants to Western countries","volume":"10","author":"Aniwan","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2022.2108407","article-title":"Genes vs environment in inflammatory bowel disease: An update","volume":"18","author":"Dipasquale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verdugo-Meza, A., Ye, J., Dadlani, H., Ghosh, S., and Gibson, D.L. (2020). Connecting the dots between inflammatory bowel disease and metabolic syndrome: A focus on gut-derived metabolites. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051434"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12319","article-title":"Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.16043","article-title":"Microbiome and metabolome in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"38","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, J., Wang, L., Gu, Y., Hou, H., Liu, T., Ding, Y., and Cao, H. (2022). Dietary patterns and gut microbiota changes in inflammatory bowel disease: Current insights and future challenges. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14194003"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1159\/000525925","article-title":"Alteration of the gut microbiome in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"104","author":"Andoh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Digestion"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Actis, G.C., Pellicano, R., Fagoonee, S., and Ribaldone, D.G. (2019). History of inflammatory bowel diseases. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8111970"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2021.03.021","article-title":"A systematic review of monogenic inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"20","author":"Nambu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jarmakiewicz-Czaja, S., Zieli\u0144ska, M., Sokal, A., and Filip, R. (2022). Genetic and epigenetic etiology of inflammatory bowel disease: An update. Genes, 13.","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4344905"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12939","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease and immunonutrition: Novel therapeutic approaches through modulation of diet and the gut microbiome","volume":"155","author":"Celiberto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2022.103136","article-title":"Molecular basis of vitamin D action in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"21","author":"Triantos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(22)00021-8","article-title":"International Organization for Study of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Lifestyle, behaviour, and environmental modification for the management of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases: An International Organization for Study of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases consensus","volume":"7","author":"Ananthakrishnan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Infantino, C., Francavilla, R., Vella, A., Cenni, S., Principi, N., Strisciuglio, C., and Esposito, S. (2022). Role of vitamin D in celiac disease and inflammatory bowel diseases. Nutrient, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235154"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0258-z","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as key actors in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Lavelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520410009573","article-title":"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor expression and activation in normal human colonic epithelial cells and tubular adenomas","volume":"40","author":"Matthiessen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25609","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.673046","article-title":"A novel peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)\u03b3 agonist 2-hydroxyethyl 5-chloro-4,5-didehydrojasmonate exerts anti-inflammatory effects in colitis","volume":"290","author":"Choo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2006.093484","article-title":"PPARgamma as a new therapeutic target in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"55","author":"Dubuquoy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"8839","article-title":"PPAR-\u03b3 with its anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic action could be an effective therapeutic target in IBD","volume":"22","author":"Vetuschi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6625","article-title":"Phytochemical drug candidates for the modulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor \u03b3 in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"34","author":"Venkataraman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"631","article-title":"Comparison of the anti-inflammatory and therapeutic actions of PPAR-gamma agonists rosiglitazone and troglitazone in experimental colitis","volume":"63","author":"Korolczuk","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"587","article-title":"Comparison of anti-inflammatory properties of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists rosiglitazone and troglitazone in prophylactic treatment of experimental colitis","volume":"64","author":"Celinski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izaa273","article-title":"PPAR\u03b3: The central mucus barrier coordinator in ulcerative colitis","volume":"27","author":"Fang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2022.154106","article-title":"Emodin targeting the colonic metabolism via PPAR\u03b3 alleviates UC by inhibiting facultative anaerobe","volume":"104","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10590501.2014.877645","article-title":"A review on thiazolidinediones and bladder cancer in human studies","volume":"32","author":"Tseng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa072761","article-title":"Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes","volume":"356","author":"Nissen","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1068","article-title":"Risk of bladder cancer among diabetic patients treated with pioglitazone: Interim report of a longitudinal cohort study","volume":"34","author":"Lewis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseng, C.H. (2022). Pioglitazone has a null association with inflammatory bowel disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmaceuticals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15121538"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-199957060-00007","article-title":"Rosiglitazone","volume":"57","author":"Balfour","year":"1999","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10106","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.48448","article-title":"Amelioration of ulcerative colitis via inflammatory regulation by macrophage-biomimetic nanomedicine","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izx079","article-title":"A novel topical PPAR\u03b3 agonist induces PPAR\u03b3 activity in ulcerative colitis mucosa and prevents and reverses inflammation in induced colitis models","volume":"24","author":"Keita","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1595","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2009.749","article-title":"Topical rosiglitazone treatment improves ulcerative colitis by restoring peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activity","volume":"105","author":"Pedersen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.7.1547","article-title":"A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia","volume":"28","author":"Goldberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2013.03.013","article-title":"Rosiglitazone is not associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer","volume":"37","author":"Tseng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2724","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101944","article-title":"Rosiglitazone has a neutral effect on the risk of dementia in type 2 diabetes patients","volume":"11","author":"Tseng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.3109\/07853890.2013.851865","article-title":"Rosiglitazone may reduce thyroid cancer risk in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"45","author":"Tseng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseng, C.H. (2018). Pioglitazone reduces dementia risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A retrospective cohort analysis. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7100306"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.12149","article-title":"Pioglitazone and thyroid cancer risk in Taiwanese patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"6","author":"Tseng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjaa136","article-title":"Metformin use is associated with a lower risk of inflammatory bowel disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Tseng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1080\/10590501.2012.735519","article-title":"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists and bladder cancer: Lessons from animal studies","volume":"30","author":"Tseng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2004.11.003","article-title":"Pioglitazone with sulfonylurea: Glycemic and lipid effects in Taiwanese diabetic patients","volume":"70","author":"Tseng","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110966","article-title":"Characterization of local gut microbiome and intestinal transcriptome responses to rosiglitazone treatment in diabetic db\/db mice","volume":"133","author":"Madsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E5934","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1612559113","article-title":"High-fat diet modifies the PPAR-\u03b3 pathway leading to disruption of microbial and physiological ecosystem in murine small intestine","volume":"113","author":"Tomas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2016.10.043","article-title":"Response of gut microbiota and inflammatory status to bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) in high fat diet induced obese rats","volume":"194","author":"Bai","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.13780","article-title":"The journey of metformin from glycaemic control to mTOR inhibition and the suppression of tumour growth","volume":"85","author":"Amin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5785","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-021-11453-1","article-title":"The potential of Akkermansia muciniphila in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"105","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934695","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.934695","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila and gut immune system: A good friendship that attenuates inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and diabetes","volume":"13","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089600","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1089600","article-title":"The role of Akkermansia muciniphila in inflammatory bowel disease: Current knowledge and perspectives","volume":"13","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004617","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1004617","article-title":"Potential benefits of metformin and pioglitazone combination therapy via gut microbiota and metabolites in high-fat diet-fed mice","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.08.029","article-title":"Recent findings in Akkermansia muciniphila-regulated metabolism and its role in intestinal diseases","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s42000-019-00093-w","article-title":"Metformin and gut microbiota: Their interactions and their impact on diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Vallianou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hormones"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ojo, O., Wang, X., Ojo, O.O., Brooke, J., Jiang, Y., Dong, Q., and Thompson, T. (2022). The effect of prebiotics and oral anti-diabetic agents on gut microbiome in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235139"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5497\/wjp.v11.i1.1","article-title":"Mammalian target of rapamycin-novel insight for management of inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"11","author":"Lashgari","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M021485","article-title":"Major involvement of mTOR in the PPAR\u03b3-induced stimulation of adipose tissue lipid uptake and fat accretion","volume":"53","author":"Blanchard","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2021.158967","article-title":"PPAR\u03b3-induced upregulation of subcutaneous fat adiponectin secretion, glyceroneogenesis and BCAA oxidation requires mTORC1 activity","volume":"1866","author":"Andrade","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseng, C.H. (Dermatology, 2023). Differential effects of metformin on immune-mediated and androgen-mediated non-cancer skin diseases in diabetes patients: A retrospective cohort study, Dermatology, Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1159\/000530077"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2016.02.028","article-title":"PPAR\u03b3 signaling and emerging opportunities for improved therapeutics","volume":"111","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s13340-021-00519-0","article-title":"The forgotten type 2 diabetes mellitus medicine: Rosiglitazone","volume":"13","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetol. Int."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2006.026690","article-title":"Bias in occupational epidemiology studies","volume":"64","author":"Pearce","year":"2007","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.13330","article-title":"Information bias in epidemiological studies with a special focus on obstetrics and gynecology","volume":"97","author":"Kesmodel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Parsons, L.S. (2023, April 01). Performing a 1:N Case-Control Match on Propensity Score. Available online: http:\/\/www2.sas.com\/proceedings\/sugi29\/165-29.pdf."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67528-9","article-title":"PROactive investigators. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): A randomised controlled trial","volume":"366","author":"Dormandy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1506930","article-title":"IRIS Trial Investigators. Pioglitazone after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack","volume":"374","author":"Kernan","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3661","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6607","article-title":"Moving towards best practice when using inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) using the propensity score to estimate causal treatment effects in observational studies","volume":"34","author":"Austin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-020-02149-4","article-title":"Lipocalin 2 links inflammation and ankylosis in the clinical overlap of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and ankylosing spondylitis (AS)","volume":"22","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5110","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI120453","article-title":"Interaction between smoking and ATG16L1T300A triggers Paneth cell defects in Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"128","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2014.02.024","article-title":"Nanotechnology in the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"8","author":"Viscido","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v28.i18.1922","article-title":"Novel drug delivery systems for inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"28","author":"Yasmin","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.12.238","article-title":"Artificial intelligence for disease assessment in inflammatory bowel disease: How will it change our practice?","volume":"162","author":"Stidham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/5\/679\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:27:45Z","timestamp":1760124465000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/5\/679"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ph16050679"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph16050679","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]]}}}