{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T02:35:11Z","timestamp":1788230111399,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697155200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Postoperative delirium (POD) represents a perioperative neurocognitive disorder that has dreaded ramifications on a patient\u2019s recovery from surgery. Dexmedetomidine displays multiple mechanisms of neuroprotection to assist in preventing POD as a part of a comprehensive anesthetic care plan. This review will cover dexmedetomidine\u2019s pharmacological overlap with the current etiological theories behind POD along with pre-clinical and clinical studies on POD prevention with dexmedetomidine. While the body of evidence surrounding the use of dexmedetomidine for POD prevention still requires further development, promising evidence exists for the use of dexmedetomidine in select dosing and circumstances to enhance recovery from surgery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16101453","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T06:07:26Z","timestamp":1697177246000},"page":"1453","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Taming Postoperative Delirium with Dexmedetomidine: A Review of the Therapeutic Agent\u2019s Neuroprotective Effects following Surgery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2017-7183","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"III","given":"Vincent","family":"Bargnes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Oliver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6760-9046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seth","family":"Greenspan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhaosheng","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Yeung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Bergese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150135","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1150135","article-title":"Anesthesia, the developing brain, and dexmedetomidine for neuroprotection","volume":"14","author":"Tsivitis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2020.06.063","article-title":"Postoperative delirium: Perioperative assessment, risk reduction, and management","volume":"125","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-020-02805-8","article-title":"Emergence delirium is associated with increased postoperative delirium in elderly: A prospective observational study","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association, D. S. M. T. F., and American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5, American Psychiatric Association.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i115","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aex354","article-title":"Postoperative cognitive dysfunction and dementia: What we need to know and do","volume":"119","author":"Needham","year":"2017","journal-title":"BJA Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjae.2020.10.004","article-title":"Postoperative cognitive dysfunction in clinical practice","volume":"21","author":"Brodier","year":"2021","journal-title":"BJA Educ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610299006043","article-title":"Validity of the confusion assessment method in detecting postoperative delirium in the elderly","volume":"11","author":"Rolfson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.4037\/ajcc2015551","article-title":"Validation of the confusion assessment method in detecting postoperative delirium in cardiac surgery patients","volume":"24","author":"Smulter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1097\/EJA.0000000000000107","article-title":"Postoperative delirium is an independent risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder in the elderly patient A prospective observational study","volume":"32","author":"Drews","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-020-1449-8","article-title":"Incidence of and risk factors for postoperative delirium in older adult patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: A prospective study","volume":"20","author":"Iamaroon","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s11657-020-0698-7","article-title":"\u2018Nonagenarians\u2019 with a hip fracture: Is a different orthogeriatric treatment strategy necessary?","volume":"15","author":"Nijmeijer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Osteoporos."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2013.05.005","article-title":"Detailed Insight Into the Impact of Postoperative Neuropsychiatric Complications on Mortality in a Cohort of Cardiac Surgery Subjects: A 23,000-Patient-Year Analysis","volume":"28","author":"Krzych","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-015-0168-8","article-title":"Postoperative delirium assessed by post anesthesia care unit staff utilizing the Nursing Delirium Screening Scale: A prospective observational study of 1000 patients in a single Swiss institution","volume":"15","author":"Winter","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Ha, A., Krasnow, R.E., Mossanen, M., Nagle, R., Hshieh, T.T., Rudolph, J.L., and Chang, S.L. (2018). Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680672","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.680672","article-title":"Subjective cognitive decline may be associated with post-operative delirium in patients undergoing total hip replacement: The PNDABLE study","volume":"13","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2022.07.009","article-title":"Outcomes in Post-operative Delirium Following Bowel Resection: A Single Center Retrospective Review","volume":"280","author":"Desrochers","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teller, J., Gabriel, M.M., Schimmelpfennig, S.-D., Laser, H., Lichtinghagen, R., Schafer, A., Fegbeutel, C., Weissenborn, K., Jung, C., and Hinken, L. (2022). Stroke, Seizures, Hallucinations and Postoperative Delirium as Neurological Complications after Cardiac Surgery and Percutaneous Valve Replacement. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd9110365"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.23736\/S0375-9393.21.15163-6","article-title":"Risk factors of postoperative delirium after liver transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"87","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Minerva Anestesiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1093\/ejcts\/ezt572","article-title":"Outcomes of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome after pulmonary endarterectomy","volume":"46","author":"Camous","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardio-Thorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/jocs.15259","article-title":"Off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting for patients with severely reduced ventricular function-A justified strategy?","volume":"37","author":"Neumann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Card. Surg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-016-0311-5","article-title":"Association of pre-operative medication use with post-operative delirium in surgical oncology patients receiving comprehensive geriatric assessment","volume":"16","author":"Jeong","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2019.109632","article-title":"Anticholinergic burden of long-term medication is an independent risk factor for the development of postoperative delirium: A clinical trial","volume":"61","author":"Mueller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000005959","article-title":"Association between perioperative medication use and postoperative delirium and cognition in older adults undergoing elective noncardiac surgery","volume":"134","author":"Duprey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-022-03049-4","article-title":"Postoperative delirium is an independent factor influencing the length of stay of elderly patients in the intensive care unit and in hospital","volume":"36","author":"Kirfel","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E21","DOI":"10.1002\/bjs.10062","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of risk factors for postoperative delirium among older patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery","volume":"103","author":"Scholz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2019.12.021","article-title":"Loss of Independence in Older Patients after Operation for Colorectal Cancer","volume":"230","author":"Gearhart","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2015.2606","article-title":"Effect of Delirium and Other Major Complications on Outcomes After Elective Surgery in Older Adults","volume":"150","author":"Gleason","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Surg."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2020.1725807","article-title":"The effects of elective aortic repair, colorectal cancer surgery and subsequent postoperative delirium on long-term quality of life, cognitive functioning and depressive symptoms in older patients","volume":"25","author":"Janssen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2020.7260","article-title":"One-year medicare costs associated with delirium in older patients undergoing major elective surgery","volume":"156","author":"Gou","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Surg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S328657","article-title":"Incidence, predictors and outcomes of delirium in complicated type b aortic dissection patients after thoracic endovascular aortic repair","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s13741-016-0047-y","article-title":"Preoperative discussion with patients about delirium risk: Are we doing enough?","volume":"5","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perioper Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000004641","article-title":"American society for enhanced recovery and perioperative quality initiative joint consensus statement on postoperative delirium prevention","volume":"130","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Greene, R., Song, Y., Chan, C., Lindroth, H., Khan, S., Rios, G., Sanders, R.D., and Khan, B. (2022). Postoperative delirium and its relationship with biomarkers for dementia: A meta-analysis. Int. Psychogeriatr., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1017\/S104161022100274X"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2020.08.061","article-title":"Association between plasma tau and postoperative delirium incidence and severity: A prospective observational study","volume":"126","author":"Ballweg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2022.01.005","article-title":"Postoperative delirium and changes in the blood\u2013brain barrier, neuroinflammation, and cerebrospinal fluid lactate: A prospective cohort study","volume":"129","author":"Taylor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Wang, G., He, Y., Wang, Z., and Zhang, M. (2022). White-cell derived inflammatory biomarkers in prediction of postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing surgery for lower limb fracture under non-general anaesthesia. Clin. Interv. Aging, 383\u2013392.","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S346954"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjae.2020.04.006","article-title":"Anaesthesia, analgesia, and the surgical stress response","volume":"20","author":"Cusack","year":"2020","journal-title":"BJA Educ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2019.08.011","article-title":"Redefining the perioperative stress response: A narrative review","volume":"123","author":"Korbonits","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.13820","article-title":"The cortisol stress response induced by surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"89","author":"Prete","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/cc12548","article-title":"Cortisol levels and neuropsychiatric diagnosis as markers of postoperative delirium: A prospective cohort study","volume":"17","author":"Kazmierski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehp527","article-title":"Stay off-pump and do not touch the aorta!","volume":"31","author":"Falk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2019.09.081","article-title":"Reducing delirium and cognitive dysfunction after off-pump coronary bypass: A randomized trial","volume":"161","author":"Szwed","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.121.318535","article-title":"Epidemiology of peripheral artery disease and polyvascular disease","volume":"128","author":"Aday","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12744","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-91990-x","article-title":"Association between ankle brachial index and development of postoperative intensive care unit delirium in patients with peripheral arterial disease","volume":"11","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2344\/0003-3006-62.1.31","article-title":"Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists: A review of current clinical applications","volume":"62","author":"Thoms","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesth. Prog."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1515\/tnsci-2015-0028","article-title":"Antinociceptive effects of dexmedetomidine via spinal substance P and CGRP","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transl. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.71380","article-title":"Median Effective Dose of Dexmedetomidine Inducing Bradycardia in Elderly Patients Determined by Up-and-Down Sequential Allocation Method","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11070846","article-title":"The current role of dexmedetomidine as neuroprotective agent: An updated review","volume":"11","author":"Liaquat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.3934\/Neuroscience.2016.2.237","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effects of Dexmedetomidine against Thapsigargin-induced ER-stress via Activity of \u03b1 2-adrenoceptors and Imidazoline Receptors","volume":"3","author":"Inagaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIMS Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-200202000-00034","article-title":"Effect of the \u03b12-agonist dexmedetomidine on cerebral neurotransmitter concentrations during cerebral ischemia in rats","volume":"96","author":"Engelhard","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3971","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30756-z","article-title":"In a secondary analysis from a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled trial Dexmedetomidine blocks cholinergic dysregulation in delirium pathogenesis in patients with major surgery","volume":"13","author":"Jacob","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-015-0075-7","article-title":"Addition of dexmedetomidine to benzodiazepines for patients with alcohol withdrawal syndrome in the intensive care unit: A randomized controlled study","volume":"5","author":"Bielka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00940","article-title":"The opioid-sparing effect of perioperative dexmedetomidine combined with oxycodone infusion during open hepatectomy: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-017-0507-7","article-title":"Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of dexmedetomidine","volume":"56","author":"Weerink","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1053\/bean.2000.0081","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and interaction pharmacodynamics of dexmedetomidine in humans","volume":"14","author":"Karol","year":"2000","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamazaki, S., Yamaguchi, K., Someya, A., Nagaoka, I., and Hayashida, M. (2022). Anti-Inflammatory Action of Dexmedetomidine on Human Microglial Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231710096"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"867","article-title":"The effect of dexmedetomidine on oxidative stress response following cerebral ischemia-reperfusion in rats and the expression of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and S100B","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit. Int. Med. J. Exp. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00019.2023","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine mitigates neuroinflammation and improves early postoperative neurocognitive dysfunction in rats by enhancing autophagy","volume":"129","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559325820902345","DOI":"10.1177\/1559325820902345","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine may reduce IL-6 level and the risk of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in patients after surgery: A meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dose-Response"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.00678","article-title":"Effects of dexmedetomidine on postoperative delirium and expression of IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, and TNF-\u03b1 in elderly patients after hip fracture operation","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2022.10.041","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine administration during brain tumour resection for prevention of postoperative delirium: A randomised trial","volume":"130","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.16480","article-title":"Collaborative delirium prevention in the age of COVID-19","volume":"68","author":"LaHue","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1213\/ane.0b013e3181887fcc","article-title":"Recovery profiles from dexmedetomidine as a general anesthetic adjuvant in patients undergoing lower abdominal surgery","volume":"107","author":"Ohtani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3182(10)70723-4","article-title":"Administration of olanzapine to prevent postoperative delirium in elderly joint-replacement patients: A randomized, controlled trial","volume":"51","author":"Larsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000005739","article-title":"Association between intraoperative arterial hypotension and postoperative delirium after noncardiac surgery: A retrospective multicenter cohort study","volume":"134","author":"Wachtendorf","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, H., Park, C.S., Huh, J., Koo, J., Jeon, J., Kim, E., Jung, S., Kim, H.W., Lim, J.Y., and Hwang, W. (2022). Intraoperative Glycemic Variability and Mean Glucose are Predictors for Postoperative Delirium After Cardiac Surgery: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Clin. Interv. Aging, 79\u201395.","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S338712"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.23736\/S0375-9393.19.13748-0","article-title":"Intraoperative hyperglycemia increases the incidence of postoperative delirium","volume":"85","author":"Windmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Minerva Anestesiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1097\/ANA.0b013e3182712fba","article-title":"BIS-guided anesthesia decreases postoperative delirium and cognitive decline","volume":"25","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Sieber, F.E., Zakriya, K.J., Gottschalk, A., Blute, M.-R., Lee, H.B., Rosenberg, P.B., and Mears, S.C. (2010). Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.22005","article-title":"Effect of electroencephalography-guided anesthetic administration on postoperative delirium among older adults undergoing major surgery: The ENGAGES randomized clinical trial","volume":"321","author":"Wildes","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199903043400901","article-title":"A multicomponent intervention to prevent delirium in hospitalized older patients","volume":"340","author":"Inouye","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Modified Hospital Elder Life Program (HELP) in geriatric hospitalized patients in internal wards: A double-blind randomized control trial","volume":"21","author":"Sharifi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060516671623","article-title":"Effect of dexmedetomidine on postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients after general anaesthesia: A meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2018.04.046","article-title":"Efficacy of perioperative dexmedetomidine on postoperative delirium: Systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"121","author":"Duan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2021.110308","article-title":"Perioperative dexmedetomidine administration to prevent delirium in adults after non-cardiac surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"73","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng, J., Qian, J., Cheng, H., Ji, F., and Liu, H. (2016). The influence of perioperative dexmedetomidine on patients undergoing cardiac surgery: A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152829"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.000936","article-title":"Perioperative dexmedetomidine improves outcomes of cardiac surgery","volume":"127","author":"Ji","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, R., Wang, X.W., Pang, L.J., Cheng, J., Wang, Y.M., Gao, G.Q., Liu, Y., and Wang, C. (2018). Pharmacologic prevention of postoperative delirium after on-pump cardiac surgery A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Medicine, 97.","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000012771"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645975","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.645975","article-title":"Is perioperative dexmedetomidine associated with a reduced risk of perioperative neurocognitive disorders following cardiac surgery? A systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"8","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-023-07384-z","article-title":"Effects of dexmedetomidine at different dosages on perioperative haemodynamics and postoperative recovery quality in elderly patients undergoing hip replacement surgery under general anaesthesia: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/00008506-200207000-00006","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine may impair cognitive testing during endovascular embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: A retrospective case report series","volume":"14","author":"Bustillo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deiner, S., Luo, X.D., Lin, H.M., Sessler, D.I., Saager, L., Sieber, F.E., Lee, H.B., Sano, M., and Dexlirium Writing, G. (2017). Intraoperative Infusion of Dexmedetomidine for Prevention of Postoperative Delirium and Cognitive Dysfunction in Elderly Patients Undergoing Major Elective Noncardiac Surgery A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Surg., 152.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2017.1505"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.accpm.2015.06.012","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of sedation with dexmedetomidine in critical care patients: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"35","author":"Constantin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anaesth. Crit. Care Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1893","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30580-3","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"388","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000002801","article-title":"Impact of dexmedetomidine on long-term outcomes after noncardiac surgery in elderly: 3-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial","volume":"270","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2016.10.026","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine vs propofol sedation reduces delirium in patients after cardiac surgery: A meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201710-1995OC","article-title":"Low-dose nocturnal dexmedetomidine prevents ICU delirium. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"197","author":"Skrobik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/10\/1453\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:06:12Z","timestamp":1760130372000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/16\/10\/1453"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ph16101453"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph16101453","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]]}}}